Showing papers in "Psychological Bulletin in 1968"

Weighted kappa: Nominal scale agreement provision for scaled disagreement or partial credit.

Abstract: A previously described coefficient of agreement for nominal scales, kappa, treats all disagreements equally. A generalization to weighted kappa (Kw) is presented. The Kw provides for the incorpation of ratio-scaled degrees of disagreement (or agreement) to each of the cells of the k * k table of joi

Statistical Significance in Psychological Research

Abstract: Most theories in the areas of personality, clinical, and social psychology predict no more than the direction of a correlation, group difference, or treatment effect. Since the null hypothesis is never strictly true, such predictions have about a SO-SO chance of being confirmed by experiment when the theory in question is false, since the statistical significance of the result is a function of the sample size. Confirmation of a single directional prediction should usually add little to one's confidence in the theory being tested. Most theories should be tested by multiple corroboration and most empirical generalizations by constructive replication. Statistical significance is perhaps the least important attribute of a good experiment; it is never a sufficient condition for claiming that a theory has been usefully corroborated, that a meaningful empirical fact has been established, or that an experimental report ought to be published. In a recent journal article Sapolsky (1964) developed the following substantive theory: Some psychiatric patients entertain an unconscious belief in the "cloacal theory of birth" which involves the notions of oral impregnation and anal parturition. Such patients should be inclined to manifest eating disorders: compulsive eating in the case of those who wish to get pregnant and anorexia in those who do not. Such patients should also be inclined to see cloacal animals, such as frogs, on the Rorschach. This reasoning led Sapolsky to predict that Rorschach frog responders show

Multiple regression as a general data-analytic system.

Abstract: Techniques for using multiple regression (MR) as a general variance-accounting procedure of great flexibility, power, and fidelity to research aims in both manipulative and observational psychological research are presented. As a prelude, the identity of MR and fixed-model analysis of variance/covariance (AV/ACV) is sketched. This requires an exposition of means of expressing nominal scale (qualitative) data as independent variables in MR. Attention is given to methods for handling interactions, curvilinearity, missing data, and covariates, for either uncorrelated or correlated independent variables in MR. Finally, the relative roles of AV/ACV and MR in data analysis are described, and the practical advantages of the latter are set forth.

Method, findings, and theory in studies of visual masking.

Abstract: Classifies the various paradigms in the study of visual masking and relates them to cases of interference among cotemporaneous stimuli. The dependent variables in masking studies are described. A distinction between criterion content and criterion level is introduced in the discussion of detection under masking and metacontrast. Various conceptions of identification of forms under masking and the contributions of masking effects to the study of psychological time are reviewed. (3 p. ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved) Language: en

Performance and satisfaction as a function of individual-environment fit.

Abstract: Research is reviewed which treats performance and satisfaction as a function of the interaction between the characteristics of the individual and those of the interpersonal and noninterpersonal environments. Relevant theoretical positions are reviewed. Alternative models for the analysis of interactions or transactions between individuals and environments are discussed. The conclusion points to and discusses 3 questions: Should one consider the perceived or "actual" environment? What units shall we employ and should they be the same units of analysis for individuals and environments? What is the nature of the processes involved in individual-en vironment relationships? This paper is concerned with the question of individual-en vironment fit. It assumes that for each individual there are environments (interpersonal and noninterpersonal) which more or less match the characteristics of his personality. A "match" or "best-fit" (Jahoda, 1961) of individual to environment is viewed as expressing itself in high performance, satisfaction, and little stress in the system whereas a "lack of fit" is viewed as resulting in decreased performance, dissatisfaction, and stress in the system. This paper presents selected studies in the experimental literature which exemplify and support the individual-environment fit approach, and discusses the theoretical models that have been suggested in relation to this view and the issues remaining to be considered. It is beyond the scope of this paper to deal with the concept of the stimulus in psychology (Gibson, 1960) or with related theories of perception (Allport, 1955). For the purposes of this paper, environmental (situational) variables are defined as representing those stimuli external to the organism which affect its behavior. Within the framework of this paper, it is assumed that individuals vary in their sensitivity to different stimuli and in the nature of their responses to these stimuli. Behavior is represented as a function of the interaction or transaction between the individ1 This review was conducted in conjunction with research supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (MH-08321) and the United States Office of Education. I am grateful to Stephen Klineberg, Bertram Koslin, and David Rosenhan for their critical readings of the manuscript. ual and his environment. The issue of whether to define the environment independently of the individual or in relation to the individual is relevant to the research reviewed and is discussed later. PERFORMANCE The research reviewed in this section treats performance as a function of the interaction between the characteristics of the individual and those of the environment. While it is often difficult to make a distinction between the interpersonal environment and the noninterpersonal environment, the studies are defined and discussed in relation to these two categories.

Choice reaction time: An analysis of the major theoretical positions.

Abstract: Choice reaction time to visual stimuli - analysis of major theoretical positions to perceptual recognition theories

Magnitude of experimental effect and a table for its rapid estimation.

Abstract: Data interpretation, discussing correlation describing effectiveness of independent variable and table giving values directly from sample size, t, z, F and chi square values

A cross-sequential study of age changes in cognitive behavior.

Abstract: Previous cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of age changes over the adult life span have reported contradictory age gradients. The apparent contradiction was assessed by means of a new research design, called the crosssequential method, which involves the repeated measurement of members of a cross-sectional sample. The SRA Primary Mental Abilities Test (PMA) and Schaie's Test of Behavioral Rigidity (TBR) were administered to a stratifiedrandom sample of 500 5s with quotas of 25 men and 25 women in each 5-yr. age interval from 20 to 70 yrs. 7 yr. later all 5s who could be located were contacted and 302 5s were retested. Significant cross-sectional age changes were found for all variables studied, but longitudinal age changes occurred for all cohorts only for those variables where response speed was of importance. Analysis of the comparative age gradients suggests that age changes over time within a given individual appear to be much smaller than differences between cohorts and that the steep textbook age gradients represent no more than the effects of increased environmental opportunity and/or genetic changes in the species. Further implications with respect to revisions in current thinking on adult age changes are discussed. One of the pervading problems troubling the developmental psychologist who is interested in studying age changes over the adult life span has been the consistent reporting of contradictory age gradients found as the result of cross-section al and longitudinal inquiries. Many cross-sectional studies report peak performance in the early twenties or thirties with steep decrement gradients thereafter (cf. Horn & Cattell, 1966; Jones & Conrad, 1933; Schaie, 1958; Schaie, Rosenthai, & Perlman, 19S3). Most longitudinal studies, on the other hand, report no decrement at all. In fact, slight gains in performance are recorded at least into the midfifties (Bayley & Oden, 19SS; Owens, 1953). It has been argued that these contradictory findings can be accounted for by systematic sample attrition in the longitudinal studies, which tends to eliminate more subjects of low ability. It has been observed that none of the longitudinal studies has yet reached the sixties and seventies, the age range where the greatest decrement has been noted in the cross-sec

Dimensions of projection

Abstract: Past confusion over the concept of projection, especially with regard to the related research evidence, has stemmed from the fact that numerous types of projections have been proposed which were not clearly differentiated from each other. In the present paper it is pointed out that theories of projection differ with regard to 2 major points: (a) whether the individual projects his own trait or a different (complementary) trait, and (b) whether the individual is aware or unaware of possessing the trait which results in the projection. The 4 possible combinations resulting from these theoretical differences are plotted in a 2 X 2 table, which provides a system in which the various types of projection and related research can be classified and compared. A critical review of the research on each type reveals that there is strong evidence for the projection of S's own trait or the complement of this trait if S is aware that he possesses the trait. There is no evidence for any type of projection resulting from a trait which S is not aware that he possesses. This finding calls into question the existence and interpretive use of \"classical\" (or similarity) projection, the type of response referred to most frequently by the term \"projection.\

Some unintended consequences of rigorous research.

Abstract: The proper use of rigorous research designs in experimental or field settings tends to place subjects vis-a-vis the researcher and research assistants vis-a-vis the senior investigator in situations that are similar to those that organizations create for lower level employees. By drawing on organizationa l theory, predictions of S reactions such as dependency upon the researcher, overt and covert withdrawal, aggression toward the researcher, and eventual banding together by Ss to protect their interests are derived and illustrated. Rigorousness is to a researcher what efficiency is to an executive: an ideal state that is always aspired to, never reached, and continually revered. Much literature exists regarding the best ways to approach both rigorousness and efficiency. In the case of efficiency, executives have traditionally assumed that when organizations are not efficient it is usually because the members have not been adhering to an efficient organizational strategy. One of the contributions of organizational behaviorists has been to study how executives and employees actually behave (not limit themselves to how they say they behave). One major result of these studies has been to show that a good deal of in. efficiency may occur precisely when and because the members are following closely the most accepted strategies for efficiency. Recently a new literature has been, and continues to be, developed by scholars studying the research situation (Friedman, 1967; Rosenthal, 1966). They too have not limited themselves to what researchers say they do in conducting research. They have studied research in terms of how it is actually carried out. As a result, they have reported dysfunctions and opened up important new questions. An exploration of this literature from the viewpoint of an organizational theorist suggests that his field may be able to make a modest contribution in terms of a theoretical framework to organize the existing findings and suggest other possible conclusions that