Showing papers in "Psychology of Women Quarterly in 1979"

Masculinity and Femininity: Their Psychological Dimensions, Correlates, and Antecedents

Abstract: Many societies assign sharply distinguished roles to men and women. Personality differences, as well as physical differences, between men and women are used to justify these different sex roles, and women are seen as more emotionally and interpersonally sensitive than men, while men are said to be more competent, achievement oriented, and assertive than women. A widely held view is that not only do men and women differ but that possession of \"masculine\" characteristics precludes possession of \"feminine\" characteristics. This bipolar conception has led to the definition of masculinity and femininity as opposites. Acceptance of this idea has caused social scientists and laypersons to consider men and women who possess cross-sex personality characteristics as less emotionally healthy and socially adjusted than those with sexappropriate traits. Previous research by the authors and others, done almost exclusively with college students, has shown, however, that masculinity and femininity do not relate negatively to each other, thus supporting a dualistic rather than a bipolar conception of these two psychological dimensions. Spence and Helmreich present data showing that the dualistic conception holds for a large number of groups, varying widely in age, geographical location, socioeconomic status, and patterns of interest, whose psychological masculinity and femininity were measured with an objective instrument, the Personality Attributes Questionnaire, devised by the authors. Many individuals are shown to be appropriately sex-typed; that is, men tend to be high in masculinity and low in femininity and women the reverse. However, a substantial number of men and women are androgynous—high in both masculine and feminine characteristics—while some are not high in either. Importantly, the authors find that androgynous individuals display more self-esteem, social competence, and achievement orientation than individuals who are strong in either masculinity or femininity or are not strong in either. One of the major contributions of the work is the development of a new, multifaceted measure of achievement motivation (the Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire), which can be used successfully to predict behavior in both males and females and is related to masculinity and femininity in both sexes. In addition to investigating the correlates of masculinity and femininity, the authors attempt to isolate parental factors that contribute to the development of these characteristics and achievement motivation. The book includes analyses of data from students on their perception of their parents, which enable the authors to examine the influence of parental masculinity and femininity and parental behaviors and child-rearing attitudes on the

Come-ons and Put-offs: Unmarried Students' Strategies for Having and Avoiding Sexual Intercourse:

Abstract: One-hundred and twenty male and 109 female unmarried college students participated in a questionnaire study of actual and expected male-female differences in the use of 10 strategies for having and...

Sex Role Identity, Androgyny, and Sex Role Transcendence: A Sex Role Strain Analysis.

Abstract: This paper first reviews three different theoretical constructs concerning the psychological significance of sex role related characteristics in personality functioning: sex role identity, androgyny, and sex role transcendence. A new conceptual analysis concerning sex-typing, sex role strain analysis, is presented. According to this analysis, the relationship between sex role related personality characteristics and psychological adjustment, especially self-esteem, is moderated by two variables: perception of the ideal member of the same sex, and sex role salience. These two variables; taken in conjunction with real self-concept, generate five sex role strain outcomes. The constructs of sex role identity, androgyny, and sex role transcendence are interpreted in terms of this sex role strain analysis. The implications of this analysis for current research and for understanding the dynamics of both individual and social change in sex roles are briefly described.

Personality and Background Characteristics of Women in Male-Dominated Occupations: A Review

Abstract: Literature on women in occupations where men predominate is reviewed from 1930 through 1976, including publications referenced in Psychological and Sociological Abstracts and limited additional materials. The literature is summarized and discussed with reference to the women's personality and background characteristics Personality data show such women to be high on “competency” traits related to the masculine stereotype and ideal. While slightly more oriented toward ideas than people in comparison with other women, the nontraditional woman does not differ from them on “warmth and expressiveness” traits of the feminine stereotype and ideal. These women are emotionally healthy and have good coping skills, although they may experience situational stress. They tend to share background characteristics which foster achievement, i.e., high parental education, frequent foreign ancestry and firstborn status, and high family stability. Other factors relate not only to achievement but to comfort with accomplishment ...

Timing of the decision to remain voluntarily childless: evidence for continuous socialization.

Abstract: Some women decide to remain childless at an early stage in their lives while other women reach a decision to remain childless only after repeatedly postponing childbearing for a number of years after marriage. Early deciders referred to as early articulators were compared to late deciders referred to as postponer in regard to family background characteristics and reference group support for childlessness. In-depth interviews were conducted with 19 early articulators and 32 late deciders. Postponers and early articulators were similar in regard to many background and demographic characteristics. 95% of the early articulators and 97% of the postponers were employed. 53% of the early articulators and 50% of the postponers had more than 4 years of college education. 58% of the early articulators and 50% of the postponers had no religion. Early articulators compared to postponers were more likely to have had parents who stressed achievement and more likely to provide their children with less warmth and affection. Early articulators also experienced more social distance from their parents during adolescence. Perhaps early articulators grew up with less desire to participate in family life as adults. Postponers compared to early articulators were more likely to have had parents who stressed independence and autonomy but who were more likely to provide their children with a high degree of warmth and affection. Postponers had little reason to reject participation in family life as adults. However their strong sense of autonomy and independence made them more likely to adopt a style of life which would permit them to retain their independence rather than submitting to the demands of children. Postponers were also more likely to receive reference group support for childlessness than early articulators. 3.6% of the early articulators and 3.1% of the postponers had a history of previous divorce. All the study participants were married at the time of interview. 74% of the early articulators and 31% of the postponers relied on sterilization for pregnancy prevention.

Overview: sex roles fertility and the motherhood mandate

Abstract: The centrality of motherhood to woman's identity is characterized as a mandate that is built into our social institutions as well as our psyches. This mandate is reflected in the assumptions of the models and methods of research in the psychology of women. An examination of the impact of the motherhood mandate is encouraged and complexities that must be reflected in research models and methods are underscored. These complexities include the need for (1) appreciation of the context of the phenomena studied; (2) interactionist approaches, including multivariate models and methods; and (3) a multidisciplinary perspective, including biological, psychological, social and structural levels of analysis. Two facets of the changing context having profound implications for the meaning of motherhood are reproductive freedom and voluntary childlessness.

Clarifying the Concept of Androgyny: Implications for Therapy

Abstract: Logical inconsistencies between Bem's theoretical and empirical definitions of androgyny are discussed. It is pointed out that one can be high in both masculine and feminine traits but that these can be expressed in inappropriate, inflexible, and dysfunctional ways. Case materials illustrative of this situation are presented. Androgyny defined as an equal balance of masculinity and femininity is portrayed on an initial, dualistic notion of androgyny, which is a precursor to a more advanced, hybrid androgynous state. Some issues involved in conceptualizing androgyny in hybrid terms are delineated, along with requisite considerations for the clinician in utilizing this model of androgyny.

The Ability/Performance Dimension of Self-esteem: Implications for Women's Achievement Behavior:

Abstract: A 33-item measure, the Performance-Self-Esteem Scale (PSES), was developed to tap self-evaluations of ability and performance. Evidence from four samples of undergraduates (a total of 224 women and...

Sexual ScriptsSEXUAL SCRIPTS: The Social Construction of Female Sexuality. LawsJudith Long and SchwartzPepper. Hinsdale, Ill.: The Dryden Press, 1977.

Abstract: repeated in this later work. The criteria for selection of items are not stated, leaving the user to wonder if these are the best references on the topics. Some omissions seem curious. The Rapoports’ book (1971) on dual career families i s omitted, while a brief article by them on the same topic is included (Item 8.1 25). Elisabeth Bing has only one of her books on prepared childbirth listed (Item 9.980). As some omissions are curious, so are some of the inclusions. Articles on “Advertising and Abuse of Drugs” (Item 10.1 034) or “Bladder Dysfunction after Schauta Hysterectomy” (Item 10.1 090) seem outside the scope of this bibliography. Elimination of these peripheral references would have reduced the overwhelming bulk of the bibliography, and perhaps its cost, without sacrificing those references likely to be of the most interest to women’s studies researchers. Despite these flaws, the bibliography does make an impressive contribution to the documentation of research on women. It will prove to be a major resource in this area.

Cognitive Performance as a Function of Sex and Handedness: An Evaluation of the Levy Hypothesis.

Abstract: Investigated incidence of left-handedness and non-right-handedness in a sample of 9th-grade students (n = 313). In comparison, incidence among undergraduates is underestimated. Girls were not signi...

The Myth of Motherhood: A Study of Attitudes Toward Motherhood

Abstract: Traditional attitudes toward motherhood reflect many contradictions. The Motherhood Inventory (Ml), a 40 item questionnaire, has been developed to study attitudes toward motherhood and the motherhood myth. The Ml includes items relating to the control of reproduction, abortion, adoption, single motherhood, male-female relationships, and idealized and punitive attitudes toward mothers. The 301 subjects in this study were drawn largely from undergraduate and graduate students at an eastern university and their parents. Comparisons with scores on the Spence-Helmreich Attitudes toward Women Scale (AWS) revealed that the sample was more liberal than the original AWS sample. Men were found to hold significantly more traditional attitudes toward motherhood than women. Younger subjects also agreed more with the myth of motherhood as did unmarried subjects. Catholics more than non-Catholics rejected abortion and supported the primacy of the woman's role as mother. Education produced the most pronounced effect on attitudes toward motherhood with more liberal attitudes held by those who were college graduates.

Implicit Theories of Masculinity and Femininity: Dualistic or Bipolar?

Abstract: The present study addressed the question of whether persons' implicit personality theories include the notion that the possession of masculine and feminine characteristics tend to preclude each other so that the two clusters of attributes are perceived to be negatively correlated. Subjects (college students) were given one of four basic descriptions of a group of men or women. These descriptions specified the presence or absence of “masculine” or “feminine” attributes as defined by the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). Subjects given descriptions specifying the presence or absence of “masculine” characteristics were asked the extent to which they could make inferences about the presence or absence of “feminine” characteristics. An analogous procedure was implemented for the descriptions specifying the presence or absence of “feminine” characteristics. The results confirm the hypothesis that individuals tend to perceive a negative relationship between masculinity and femininity in others.

The More You Have, the More You Do: The Relationship Between Wife's Employment, Sex‐Role Attitudes, and Household Behavior

Abstract: This study explores the relationship between wife's employment, sex-role traditionalism, and the reported division of household tasks and decisions. Data were collected from three samples of currently married women between the ages of 18 and 49 in Los Angeles County. Sex-role traditionalism was positively related to wives’ relative performance of feminine tasks, but generally unrelated to masculine task performance and decision-making between spouses. Employed or professional women took primary responsibility for relatively fewer feminine tasks than did nonemployed or nonprofessional women. The findings suggest that despite differences among women in sex-role traditionalism and employment status, most women say that they and their spouses divide tasks in a traditional sex-role fashion.

Some Assumed Characteristics of Voluntarily Childfree Women and Men

Abstract: Two experiments were conducted to assess students' perceptions from written descriptions of voluntarily childfree women and men. In Experiment 1, a sterilized, childfree wife was rated as less sensitive and loving, less typical an American woman, more likely to be active in women's liberation (ps < .01), and as less happy, less well-adjusted, less likely to get along with her parents, and less likely to be happy and satisfied at age 65 (ps < .05), relative to an otherwise identically described mother of two. In Experiment 2, similar differential trait ascriptions appeared for both childfree men and women. In fact, ratings of the childfree man were less favorable than those for the childfree woman, suggesting possible greater bias against childfree men than women.

Jack went up the hill . . . but where was Jill

Abstract: To assess the premise that picture books are important transmitters of sex-role information, 206 picture books for children, ages 3 to 6, were analyzed. Three groups were formed: (1) titles published before the women's movement (1903–1965); (2) titles published after the women's movement (1966–1975); (3) titles chosen from a specialized nonsexist list of books about girls (1882–1973). Analyses indicated that children are presented with sex-typed book models: females, underrepresented in titles, central roles, and illustrations; males, overrepresented in instrumental pursuits and underrepresented in expressive activities. On the other hand, the third group of books featured mostly female characters and contained a predominance of instrumental models with a minimum of expressive activities. The data revealed that picture books today provide stereotyped models for young children to emulate.

Androgyny in Psychotherapy: But Will It Sell in Peoria?

Abstract: Androgyny, as conceptualized in psychology, is based on traditional masculine and feminine stereotypes. Masculine characteristics (as measured by two commonly used sex role inventories) contribute more to measures of self-esteem than do feminine characteristics from the same inventories, indicating that masculine characteristics have more functional value in our culture. Traditionally feminine characteristics are not highly valued by either clients or therapists. However, therapists need to be aware of potential costs to women who make nontraditional choices, moving toward androgyny. It is questionable that androgynous women are perceived in the same favorable manner as androgynous males, particularly in a traditional social context. The consequences of internal and external conflicts created by moving toward androgyny or by devaluation of feminine characteristics cannot be dismissed lightly. Psychotherapists must be willing to assist clients with the external problems that psychological research has demonstrated exist for women who either must or choose to function in roles that are not traditional.

An Empirically Keyed Scale for Measuring Managerial Attitudes toward Women Executives.

Abstract: A scale (MATWES) is presented providing reliability and some validity measures regarding managerial attitudes toward women executives. Methodology used demonstrates an empirical approach to scale development through the employment of a projective test for item generation and the use of a panel of women executives who served as Q-sorters to select the items. The use of the Scale as a research instrument and its value in minimizing researcher bias in its construction are discussed.

Measuring Androgyny in Adulthood

Abstract: A critique is presented of trends in sex differences studies over the past few years. Such studies have failed to study possible integration of sex role identity as a developmental process, and have often neglected self-definitions in favor of stereotypes. A new approach for measuring androgynous competencies is suggested which utilizes Bakan's (1966) concepts of agency and communion. Adult women high on both agentic and communion competencies seem to have many advantages over those who are low on both competencies or who are competent in only one area.

Roles and Role Conflict of Women in Infertile Couples

Abstract: Pregnancy is probably the most dramatic, strictly female biological event—one that has meaning not only biologically, but culturally, interpersonally, and intrapsychically as well. Fertility is closely tied to woman’s identity and roles (Russo, 1976), and a psychology of women that is founded in women’s own experience and values must address this area.

Some Social Implications of Sex‐Choice Technology

Abstract: A survey of 710 undergraduates was conducted to assess the probable patterns of utilization of sex-choice technology when it becomes widely available. Ideal family composition was determined along with demographic and attitudinal variables. Results confirmed the overwhelming preference for male children, in general, and male firstborn children, in particular: 85% wanted a firstborn boy, while 73% wanted a secondborn girl. Reasons for the choice reflected both considerable knowledge of advantages accruing to firstborn children and stereotypic expectations regarding sons and daughters. The possible consequences of widespread use of sex choice technology for women's civil rights are discussed.

Theoretical and Operational Conceptualizations of Psychological Androgyny: Implications for Measurement

Abstract: Research has demonstrated that the original operationalization of psychological androgyny using the t-ratio procedure accurately represents four of its five fundamental theoretical components. A new operationalization of androgyny, the median split technique, has recently been adopted, and this procedure also adequately denotes the same four theoretical components. However, the two procedures differ in the distribution of scores produced and in the results obtained in two recent studies. The implications of these differences are discussed and future directions for the measurement of psychological androgyny are investigated.

Sex of Supervisor, Sex of Subordinate, and Subordinate Job Satisfaction

Abstract: It was hypothesized in the present research that there would be significant differences in the job satisfaction of subordinates depending upon the interaction between their sex and the sex of their supervisors. Using job satisfaction data from 139 employees, it was found that: (a) female subordinates supervised by male supervisors were less satisfied with supervision than those supervised by women, (b) females working under males reported a lower level of satisfaction with their co-workers than females supervised by females or males supervised by males, and (c) women who had female supervisors indicated a higher level of satisfaction with their work than men with male supervisors. Contrary to traditional stereotypes of women supervisors, the results suggested that these stereotypes might not be important in long-term, real-world situations.

Fertility, sex role attitudes, and labor force participation.

Abstract: Data from the 1970 National Fertility Study were used to investigate the relationships between sex role attitudes and the childbearing and labor force participation of women. While several relevant dimensions of sex role attitudes were identified, it was found that the most crucial aspect for working and fertility was the extent to which the woman identified the female role as that of housewife and homemaker. Those having traditional definitions concerning this role were less likely to be working, and had fewer plans to work in the future. In addition, as expected, women with traditional sex role definitions had more children than others. While the orientation of the woman toward the home was the primary correlate of work and fertility, those who felt that women had little control over their lives had higher fertility than others—a relationship which could be explained partially, but not entirely, in terms of unplanned childbearing.

Career Goals of College Women and Men and Perceived Achievement-Related Encouragement:

Abstract: Encouragements and discouragements for achievement-related behavior were reported in an interview setting by three groups of college seniors: Career women (n = 20), career men (n = 20), and traditional women (n = 19). Career women reported significantly more encouragement from teachers, family members (except parents), and significant others of the opposite sex than did either career men or traditional women. Career women also reported more encouragement from-counselors and friends, while career men reported more encouragement from parents; however, these differences were not significant. Career women reported a significantly higher grade point average than either of the other groups. Implications of the results for the achievement behavior of women and men are considered.

Social Change, Positive Mental Health, and Psychological Androgyny

Abstract: Recent changes in the timing of life stages, the length of the lifespan, labor force participation, marriage and fertility are described. It is argued that highly-differentiated sex-role orientations are less suited to current conditions than are androgynous orientations, especially for women. If this is true, then developing androgynous sex-role orientations may promote greater adaptability and positive mental health.

Sex‐Stereotyped and Nonstereotyped Introductions of New Toys in the Preschool Classroom: An Observational Study of Teacher Behavior and Its Effects

Abstract: In Study 1, the behavior of teachers in introducing sex-typed and nonsex-typed toys in the classroom was observed in nine preschool classes. Results indicated that teachers called on more boys to demonstrate a “masculine” toy than girls, p < .01. No significant differences were found in the mean number of boys and girls called on to demonstrate “neutral” or “feminine” toys. However, teachers were more variable in demonstrating the sex-typed feminine toys than the nonstereotyped toy, p < .05. In a second study, two sets of toys, each including five dolls and five trucks, were introduced using stereotyped and nonstereotyped introductions to two classes of 3- and 4-year-old children. No significant sex differences in toy choices were found following the nonstereotyped introductions. Following the stereotyped introductions, the children's toy choices were consistent with sex-role stereotypes. These results are consistent with laboratory studies suggesting that bias in the introduction of toys by adults may co...

Androgyny and Derived Identity in Married Women with Varying Degrees of Non-Traditional Role Involvement

Abstract: Three groups of women–(1) wives with no outside employment, (2) wives employed in non-professional occupations, and (3) wives employed in professional occupations–were administered the Derived Identity Questionnaire (DIQ) and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). The two working groups revealed less “derived identity” than did the non-employed group, although the difference was only marginally significant. On the BSRI it was found that while the obtained femininity scores were essentially equal and high for the three groups, masculinity increased as a direct function of degree of departure from the housewife role. This finding led to the conclusion that working wives (especially professionals) are more “androgynous” than non-working wives. Finally, the signed difference between the masculinity and femininity scores and the DIQ scores were correlated positively, indicative of a negative relationship between derived identity and androgyny.

The Relationship Between Attitudinal and Behavioral Measures of Sex Preference

Abstract: This study examined the relationship between an attitudal and a behavioral measure of sex preference for offspring. In addition to looking at the relationship between these measures, their relationship to other variables was also investigated. Pregnant women and their spouses (N = 56) responded to a questionnaire measure of sex preference, a behavioral measure of sex preference, Bem's Sex Role Inventory, and the Attitudes Towards Women Scale. The behavioral and questionnaire measures of sex preference were significantly related, indicating that in the area of preferred sex of firstborn children, attitudinal measures appear to be highly related to behavioral measures. Contrary to prediction, androgynous and nonandrogynous persons did not differ significantly on preferred sex of child. However, persons with a more positive attitude toward women's movement ideology showed significantly less male preference than persons with less positive attitudes toward women's movement ideology.

Racism and Feminism: Is Women's Liberation for Whites Only?

Abstract: The women's movement is often described as “white middleclass” despite the fact that black women not only are more oppressed than whites, but are more favorable to the goals of the women's movement. Black women, especially those identified with the black rights movement, fear that feminism will split their ranks and divert public attention. Black women's problems also differ from those of whites in other ways, mostly related to the fact that their economic position is much worse than that of either white women or black men. Moreover, blacks hesitate to join organizations they perceive as white dominated. It is argued that both black and women's rights movements need each others' support and that black women cannot achieve equality unless both movements succeed

Effects of Social Conditions on the Expression of Sex‐role Stereotypes

Abstract: In this study, 129 female and 83 male undergraduates were asked to make judgments about identical male and female law school applicants. Evaluations of the candidate employed two types of measures: (a) direct measures set up to assess judgments based upon objective criteria such as GPA and aptitude test scores, and (b) indirect measures designed to provide more opportunity for subjective factors and subtle ways for stereotyping to operate. It was hypothesized that increased social awareness of sex discrimination would reduce more blatant types of stereotyping expressed in the direct measures and force stereotyping into more subtle forms, measurable through the construction of the indirect indices. The results revealed no differences between male and female candidates on the direct measures. However, stereotyping appeared on indirect measures associated with personality characteristics and employment alternatives. The investigators concluded that prejudicial attitudes toward women continue to exist and are expressed in more subtle or „hidden” forms. Suggestions for developing means for measuring these attitudes as well as practical considerations for reducing discrimination in employment settings were presented.