Showing papers in "Review of Policy Research in 1993"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a theory of policy instrument choice which is capable of dealing with instances of long-term, cross-national changes in policy instrument usage, and argue that reconceptualization of instrument choices in terms of policy learning can aid in this theoretical project.
Abstract: The spread of privatization in almost every country over the last decade reflects a rapid and fundamental change in patterns of policy instrument usage. Yet the literature on policy instruments has almost nothing to say on this perhaps most significant development in public policy in recent times. This paper's objective is to aid in the development of a theory of policy instrument choice which is capable of dealing with instances of long-term, cross-national changes in policy instrument usage. It will be argued that reconceptualization of instrument choices in terms of policy learning can aid in this theoretical project.
156 citations
TL;DR: This paper examined the United States policy toward people with AIDS (PWAs) using a theory of the social construction of target populations (Schneider and Ingram, 1993) and developed a policy narrative which focuses on the ways PWAs have been categorized throughout the epidemic and how the characterization of these constructed target populations has influenced the design of policies aimed at these groups.
Abstract: This paper examines the United States policy toward people with AIDS (PWAs) using a theory of the social construction of target populations (Schneider and Ingram, 1993). A policy narrative is developed which focuses on the ways PWAs have been categorized throughout the epidemic and how the characterization of these constructed target populations has influenced the design of policies aimed at these groups. The Ryan White Act of 1990 and the debate surrounding its passage is examined and found to be consistent with the expectations of the theory. Propositions which extend the framework are offered as a guide for future research.
51 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compare female and male jail staff perceptions regarding the stress associated with work in jails, the job satisfaction to be derived from jail work, job environment experienced in jails and the level of commitment to jail facilities across five jail settings.
Abstract: Although women now represent a significant proportion of many (if not most) jail staffs, the degree to which their perceptions of corrections work differs from males' remains largely unexplored. In this paper, we compare female and male jail staff perceptions regarding the stress associated with work in jails, the job satisfaction to be derived from jail work, the job environment experienced in jails and the level of commitment to jail facilities across five jail settings. Our findings show important gender-based similarities and differences that need to be understood to maximize the benefits of the work force diversity that women bring to the corrections profession.
27 citations
TL;DR: The authors examines the national provident funds (NPFs) that operate in 23 developing countries which seek to provide their members with basic social security protection by means of compulsory savings, and explores how the juxtaposition of economic, social and social security objectives has made NPFs generally resilient to fundamental change and has, in some instances, resulted in the evolution of a social security hybrid.
Abstract: This paper examines the national provident funds (NPFs) that operate in 23 developing countries which seek to provide their members with basic social security protection by means of compulsory savings (see Appendix). It explores how the juxtaposition of economic, social and social security objectives has made NPFs generally resilient to fundamental change and has, in some instances, resulted in the evolution of a social security hybrid—neither a pure compulsory savings scheme nor a social insurance system.
24 citations
TL;DR: The politics of the environment may not be unique, but they present some distinctive characteristics as mentioned in this paper, such as conflict between perceived facts and values, inadequate comprehension of the complexities of nature, sectoral subdivisions of knowledge, assumptions, situations and motivations in environmental politics, fractionated structure of laws and administration, and short-range perception of time.
Abstract: The politics of the environment may not be unique, but they present some distinctive characteristics. In undertaking policy analyses and administrative strategies an appreciation of concepts, assumptions and circumstances, and underlying environmental policy issues is needed. To ignore these fundamentals is to risk superficiality in analysis, and error in findings and conclusions. Yet getting down to basics is often rejected as diversion from the goal of analysis. It deviates from a “straight to the point” approach, adds cost and time to investigation, and seldom interests practical-minded analysts. Even so, this paper will be prefaced by a concise reminder of some basic factors that make environmental policy problematic. Among these are: (1) incompatible concepts of man-nature relationships—notably conflict between perceived facts and values, (2) inadequate comprehension of the complexities of nature, (3) sectoral subdivisions of knowledge, (4) assumptions, situations and motivations in environmental politics, (5) fractionated structure of laws and administration, and (6) short-range perception of time. In addition to these conceptual factors the widely varied subject-matter of environmental politics narrows the scope of generalization for policy purposes.
17 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a review of previous attempts to formulate social security policies that focus on the poor, and challenge policymakers to identify innovative social security programs that address the poverty problem directly.
Abstract: Although social security emerged in the industrial countries as a mechanism for alleviating and preventing poverty, it has had a negligible impact on the problem of poverty in the developing countries. Because of the high incidence of poverty in the Third World and the need for effective interventions, conventional social security policies should be critically reexamined. Reviewing previous attempts to formulate social security policies that focus on the poor, this paper challenges policymakers to identify innovative social security programs that address the poverty problem directly.
14 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used the AIDS issue as a case study in their effort to shed light upon the policy process in Kenya Tanzania and Uganda countries in which AIDS is prevalent, and concluded that applying scientific norms in other cultures on the assumption that they are objective or nonpolitical tends to produce serious backlash effects which hamper necessary social action.
Abstract: Very little is known about the policy process in developing countries. The authors use the AIDS issue as a case study in their effort to shed light upon the policy process in Kenya Tanzania and Uganda countries in which AIDS is prevalent. AIDS is not a typical policy issue but in choosing an extreme case the authors felt that they could more effectively highlight the problems which can exist in performing good policy analysis in developing countries. The first part of the paper provides background information on the spread of disease in Africa and its potential future implications. The second section provides a sense of the challenges of performing policy analysis in non-Western cultural contexts while the policy and political dimensions of AIDS in East Africa and the related conclusions are considered in the closing segment. One conclusion of the study is that applying scientific norms in other cultures on the assumption that they are objective or nonpolitical tends to produce serious backlash effects which hamper necessary social action. Another conclusion is that the policy analyst must consider the whole policy process as well as the prevailing political culture.
13 citations
TL;DR: The New Zealand experiment may illuminate the effects of institutional structure on the implementation of policy as mentioned in this paper. But it is difficult to compare different approaches to environmental problems and may not be applicable to all countries.
Abstract: The scope, complexity and interrelatedness of environmental problems presents a difficult challenge to policymakers. To date, public policies have been responsive largely to particular matters of public concern. They have typically been ad hoc, sectoral and segmental. Their administration has been charged to various agencies, each with its special mission. In consequence, governments have often acted to cross purposes; small results have often been ineffectual and, as often, unnecessarily expensive. Incremental innovation is seldom able to affect significantly the tendencies of the larger system of public policy and administration within which it is undertaken. Inasmuch as no country has had long experience with administration of environmental policy, a comparison of different approaches to environmental problems is useful. Direct transfers of method from one country to another may seldom be practicable, yet there may be lessons learned from the diverse experience of governments addressing similar problems. A comprehensive and radical institutional experiment in environmental policy has been initiated in the government of New Zealand. The New Zealand experiment may illuminate the effects of institutional structure on the implementation of policy. The relationships between constitutional principles, policy priorities and administrative structures have never been clear. The problems of coping with multiple environmental trends, their causes and their consequences justify efforts to find more effective methods of policymaking.
9 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors make the case that the art and science of risk assessment will fall short of social and political realities until the psychological and cultural aspects of risk receive more adequate attention.
Abstract: A problem in policymaking for prevention of harm to persons and the environment concerns the probability of harm occurring—that is, the measure of risk involved. Policymakers have almost always sought to calculate the risk involved in proposed courses of action. Their methods have often been irrational and their estimates erroneous. Explicit analysis of risk to society and systematic methods for estimating it emerged with the advent of science as more reliable procedures for prediction and decision-making. However, as with many other forms of analysis, the assessment of risk has carried its own risk—namely an undue reliance on logical quantitative techniques which fail to address the root causes of public concern and apprehension. Common-sense assessments of risk tell us more what risks people regard as acceptable and risks arouse anxiety and protest. Carnage from accidents on the nation's highways arouse much less apprehension than nuclear accidents even though actual risk from automobiles is much greater than injury or death from nuclear reactors. The following paper makes the case that the art and science of risk assessment will fall short of social and political realities until the psychological and cultural aspects of risk receive more adequate attention.
9 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify four "ideal" types of growth management reforms with empirical referents in the states: quantum, emergent, convergent and gradualist.
Abstract: This article seeks to advance our understanding of the politics of growth management reform in the American states. First, it builds on prior research on agenda processes in other policy arenas to identify four “ideal” types of growth management reforms with empirical referents in the states: quantum, emergent, convergent and gradualist. Next, the political dynamics associated with each type are culled from the experiences of eight states pursuing such reforms over the past three decades. The article concludes by reviewing the implications of these findings for future research and for those pursuing growth management reforms in the future.
8 citations
Abstract: Among the unforeseen problems of the new industrial age has been the disposal of increasing quantities of wastes—many hazardous and toxic. Industrial chemistry has produced numerous products that, while useful, are alien to nature and resistant to biodegradation or detoxification. Growing public awareness of the possible hazards and risks involved in disposal of the residuals of industrial activities is arousing a popular demand for environmental protection. But this popular awareness depends upon public information and a degree of scientific literacy—conditions which vary widely among nations. Initial consequences are environmental regulations and restrictions respecting waste disposal in scientifically developed countries, and vulnerability among less developed countries to the export of hazardous wastes from the countries of their origin. A secondary consequence is the emergence of international waste trade as a national and international multidimensional policy problem.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors use the lead contamination issue to illustrate the obstacles to integration of policy and procedure even for a single environmental pollutant, and the effects of elevating the Environmental Protection Agency to a cabinet level department cannot fully be foreseen.
Abstract: Because of the interrelating, cross-media character of many environmental problems, development of comprehensive and coherent policies for their abatement or management is difficult. This is particularly true where, as in the United States, there has been a strong tendency to focus on single issues of complex problems. Nowhere is this problem of policy and program integration more difficult than in the Environmental Protection Agency. This article uses the lead contamination issue to illustrate the obstacles to integration of policy and procedure even for a single environmental pollutant. Given the holistic and ramifying character of environmental problems, how can appropriate policies and regulations be developed in a political system characterized by sectoral, specialized structure and special interest clientele? At the time of this writing, the effects of elevating the EPA to a cabinet level department cannot fully be foreseen. The expansion of EPA to the administration of nonregulatory responsibilities will doubtless bring new problems of policy to this agency. Problems of program integration may increase unless EPA is authorized to devise and adapt more effective integrative procedures.
TL;DR: The authors explored the options available to elderly immigrants in two quite similar countries to achieve social security in their old age, including government transfers, occupational superannuation, tax-deductible personal savings, housing, and formal and informal supports.
Abstract: Drawing on a purposive sample of 25 interviews supplemented by secondary source material, this comparative study explores the options available to elderly immigrants in two quite similar countries to achieve social security in their old age. The focus is the culturally determined perspectives and practices of aging Italian-born and Indian-born immigrants in the context of public and private sector social welfare policies and provisions in Australia and Canada. Government transfers, occupational superannuation, tax-deductible personal savings, housing, and formal and informal supports are discussed. What is important to the sense of social security of the older people and how well-off or disadvantaged they seem to be are among the questions raised. The design affords an opportunity to test the complex combination of cross-national and cross-cultural comparison. In the certainty that the income deficiencies of today's elderly immigrants cannot be remedied easily or quickly enough to benefit those affected, intervention strategies can be aimed at expanding ethno-specific community supports and quality residential care; such a direction is supported by assessment of service availability in relation to estimates of aging among particular foreign-born immigrant groups. Suggestions are made for future research at the levels of theory and application.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors define atypical work as part-time work, casual and temporary work, outwork/homework/telework and small self-employment.
Abstract: In defining atypical work, this paper encompasses part-time work, casual and temporary work, outwork/homework/telework and small self-employment. All three national social security systems are very selective and inflexible in protecting these forms of work as they are modeled according to the dominant pattern of full-time, continuous employment. As atypical work is women's work, it is also regulated by social security benefits for the other part of women's work—domestic work. Family benefits have a very ambiguous function. They provide some means to escape from private dependency and they sometimes even recognize domestic work as insured normal labor market work. On the other side, they were also intended to subsidize the low wages of marginal work and allow only for a small amount of paid work, especially atypical work, while on benefit. Thus, they also structured and sustained the segmentation of labor market work and domestic work.
TL;DR: The National Commission on the Public Service, commonly known as the Volcker Commission, was created to help combat a "quiet crisis" in the United States' federal civil service as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The National Commission on the Public Service, commonly known as the Volcker Commission, was created to help combat a ‘quiet crisis’ in the United States' federal civil service. The commission made a series of recommendations to strengthen the civil service. With few exceptions, these recommendations have not made their way into law. This examination of the work of the task forces on education and training and on recruitment and retention, in the framework of Daniel Mazmanian and Paul Sabatier's implementation model, focuses on what happened to the Volcker report and why it happened. It concludes with recommendations on what might be done differently in future efforts to strengthen the civil service.
TL;DR: In this article, the influence of social security programs throughout the world in contributing to the maintenance of poverty and proposing some radical solutions for overcoming the problem is documented and demonstrate the influence.
Abstract: Although social security programs were originally introduced as measures to reduce the poverty of needy groups, factors such as coverage, vestedness, administrative regulations and the so-called “wage stop” effectively prevent millions of people throughout the world from living decently when their only source of income is from social security. In the overwhelming majority of social security programs worldwide, including old-age pensions, illness and maternity programs, workers compensation, and family or children's allowances, coverage is open only to workers and usually excludes housewives, transient workers, agricultural laborers, new immigrants and part-time workers. Similarly, vestedness requirements effectively prevent many people from receiving benefits. Administrative regulations, including waiting times and proof of status, add to the difficulties many people have in getting social security benefits. Most importantly, the stipulation in almost every program that no one should be able to get from welfare programs that which he or she could get from wages or salaries keeps the level of payments far below the poverty line. This paper will document and demonstrate the influence of social security programs throughout the world in contributing to the maintenance of poverty and will propose some radical solutions for overcoming the problem.
TL;DR: The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 could have facilitated the unification of environmental policy; unfortunately presidents and congresses have not chosen to use it for this purpose as discussed by the authors. And because environmental protection per se is relatively new to public law and policy and has few roots in the common law, private citizens aggrieved by political obstruction of their expectations have appealed to the courts for relief and compensation.
Abstract: One of the problem-making tendencies in environmental policymaking has been an incremental approach to regulation and control. Either because the full dimensions of an environmental problem are not perceived or because political resistance compels step-by-step action, environmental controls tend to be applied progressively, beginning with nominal, largely ineffectual, retroactive declarations. Failing to meet objectives, laws are toughened and extended year by year until the severty of sanctions begins to defeat their intended effects. The fractionized state of environmental law, focusing on specific problems of pollution and subject to changes in interpretation, makes observance and enforcement difficult. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 could have facilitated the unification of environmental policy; unfortunately presidents and congresses have not chosen to use it for this purpose. Meanwhile, because environmental protection per se is relatively new to public law and policy and has few roots in the common law, private citizens aggrieved by political obstruction of their expectations have appealed to the courts for relief and compensation. Conservative courts have granted this relief under the “taking” clause of the Constitution. Extraordinary measures in constitutional law may be necessary to resolve an impasse in public policy resulting from conflict between public interests and private rights as interpreted by the judiciary.
TL;DR: The authors assesses the evolving role of the agencies involved in foreign assistance planning, budgeting and implementation processes; the processes themselves; the changes affecting the program; and the decision-making structure.
Abstract: The changes taking place in the world today are exposing the inadequacies of the U.S. foreign assistance program. Beyond external changes such as the fall of communism, internal changes have occurred in the policy decisions and purposes governing the program, management and operations of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), level of public attention on scandal, and aggressiveness of congressional oversight. After describing the purposes of the foreign assistance program, this article assesses the evolving role of the agencies involved in foreign assistance planning, budgeting and implementation processes; the processes themselves; the changes affecting the program; and the decision-making structure. Three reforms are needed to make the U.S. foreign aid program more responsive to U.S. foreign policy interests and more effective in accomplishing its development mandate. First, a strong policy focus is needed to direct the program toward realistic objectives and the best mechanisms for achieving those objectives. Second, the foreign aid program must move away from implementing projects with limited objectives and toward programs that promote broad-based economic growth, pluralism and democracy. Finally, AID should be merged into the State Department, and its field structure reorganized and reduced to better integrate development and foreign policy considerations.
TL;DR: In this article, the 1974 introduction of a new system for compensating individuals who suffer accidental injuries in New Zealand was reviewed and the development of this scheme through the late 1980s and highlights the increase of political pressures for subsequent reform.
Abstract: This paper profiles the 1974 introduction of a new system for compensating individuals who suffer accidental injuries in New Zealand It reviews the development of this scheme through the late 1980s and highlights the increase of political pressures for subsequent reform Among the various difficulties identified in implementation are the operation of the “no fault” principle, the effect of the duration of disability, the payment of lump-sum compensation and the question of indexing payments Disputes about the detailed funding of the scheme and politically inspired changes in the revenue base are explained The major dilemma posed by different levels of compensation for those disabled by accident or sickness is examined The paper concludes by querying whether the identified problems are a reflection of weaknesses in the original scheme or a result of less-than-full implementation
TL;DR: The unintended effects of social policy measures are frequently important, controversial, difficult to ascertain and even more difficult to quantify as mentioned in this paper, and some selected aspects of four types of unintended effects are discussed in this article.
Abstract: The unintended effects of social policy measures are frequently important, controversial, difficult to ascertain and even more difficult to quantify. Some selected aspects of four types of unintended effects are discussed in this article. First, effects due to redistribution of income as well as life chances and opportunities as determined by market forces and attitudes (sexism, ageism, racism) favor some at the expense of others. Even redistribution which increases gross domestic product (GDP) often disadvantages certain groups. Second, contingency-related benefits tend to favor population groups differently. Third, free and subsidized health services, in certain conditions, increase both the supply and demand for services—the moral hazard problem. Fourth, contingency benefits in cash and kind tend to increase the incidence of such contingencies and, if income-related, tend to result in poverty and unemployment traps. Cross-national comparative studies may be a useful device in ascertaining effects or the absence of effects.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine the roles of politics and processes in the formulation and implementation of U.S. natural resource policy during the Reagan and Bush administrations, and the relationship between policies and procedures during these administrations will be illustrated by their effects on renewable natural resources management.
Abstract: This article examines the roles of politics and processes in the formulation and implementation of U.S. natural resource policy during the Reagan and Bush administrations. The relationship between policies and procedures during these administrations will be illustrated by their effects on renewable natural resources management in the Department of the Interior and in the Forest Service, Department of Agriculture. The political history of these agencies raises doubts regarding their voluntarily adopting an ecological approach to the management of natural resources. Historically they have been largely captives of their clienteles—farmers, ranchers, miners, loggers, hunters and fishermen. Recreation and tourism have added new clients, whose interests often clash with the older interests in the land and its resources. Further complicating the roles of these agencies has been the environmental movement and new science-based analyses (e.g., impact assessment). Management science has introduced new methods that have increased the effectiveness of political control over policy and performance. Therefore, in evaluating the administration of environmental policies distinction should be made between the substance of policies and implementing procedures. Policies regarded as good may be poorly administered and policies harmful to the public interest may be efficiently executed.
TL;DR: The adjustable coupon would be linked to the six-month Treasury bill auction yield as discussed by the authors, which would relieve some of the burden on the long-maturity fixed-coupon bonds.
Abstract: The Treasury should supplement its bond offerings with adjustable-rate coupon bonds. The adjustable coupon would be linked to the six-month Treasury bill auction yield. Given the different magnitude of adjustable and fixed mortgage rates, the interest servicing costs would be dramatically lower for the floating-coupon bonds. This idea is already a proven winner in the corporate bond market where close to 30 percent of new Eurobond offerings in the last 10 years have been adjustable-rate bonds. In addition to reducing servicing costs, the strategy will relieve some of the burden on the long-maturity fixed-coupon bonds. Reducing the supply of the fixed-coupon bonds should increase prices and decrease long-term yields. Reduction in long-term interest rates enhances spending, construction and capital expenditures. Most importantly, these bonds help enforce a low inflation policy.
TL;DR: The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was negotiated without anticipation of an international environmental movement and new policies at the national level that did not reflect, and might be inconsistent with, economic values as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The emergence of a worldwide environmental movement in the early 1960s accompanied an international expansion of economic activity and applied technology. The principal medium through which this expansion progressed was trade. In 1947, following World War II, a series of international agreements were negotiated to regularize international relations in finance, monetary policies, and trade. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was negotiated without anticipation of an international environmental movement and new policies at the national level that did not reflect, and might be inconsistent with, economic values. Conflict between policies for freedom of trade and environmental protection did not immediately emerge. With the adoption of numerous environmental protection measures in the United States and many other countries after 1969, the incompatibility of some trade and environmental policies became political issues. Trade policies are not confined to economic changes. Policy issues developing around the agreement and environmental protection are complex, and frequently involve technological issues, as in the Mexican tuna controversy discussed in this paper.
TL;DR: In this paper, the significance of basic income as an option in the future is investigated against the background of recent changes in society and social security systems, presented in four segments: arguments for and against basic income, the social and political foundation, and the relationship between the validity of the Basic Income as a future option and concrete socioeconomic conditions.
Abstract: In this paper, the significance of basic income as an option in the future is investigated against the background of recent changes in society and social security systems, presented in four segments. First, the concept of basic income is presented in the context of existing social security systems. Basic income represents an elementary form of unconditional income in terms of labor and income. Second, arguments for and against basic income are studied; the social and political foundation is identified; and the relationship between the validity of the basic income as a future option and concrete socioeconomic conditions is discussed. Third, basic income is placed against the background of wider processes of social ordering—specifically, the relationship between state and society. Finally, arguments are made for reconsidering the present system of social security and its future transition.