Showing papers in "World Englishes in 1998"

Ideologies of English in Japan

Abstract: A number of educators in recent years have argued that the dominance of English has created structural and cultural inequalities between developed and developing countries. Although they tend to dismiss ideological issues regarding teaching English in affluent countries in the Expanding Circle such as Japan, there is a growing concern and critique in Japan on ideologies of English. Critics argue that the dominance of English influences the Japanese language and people’s views of language, culture, race, ethnicity and identity which are affected by the world view of native English speakers, and that teaching English creates cultural and linguistic stereotypes not only of English but also of Japanese people. Recent discourses of nihonjinron and kokusaika provide a broader context for understanding such ideologies. These discourses represent both resistance and accommodation to the hegemony of the West with a promotion of nationalistic values and learning a Western mode of communication; i.e., English. Among several proposals offered by critics, raising critical awareness of English domination parallels the philosophy of critical pedagogy. This paper suggests that both critical consciousness and practical skills in English along with inclusion of varieties of English in the curriculum are necessary for Japanese learners to appropriate English for social transformation.

Attitudes Toward English and Its Functions in Finland: A Discourse-Analytic Study.

Abstract: With the second cognitive revolution, a new paradigm is emerging in (social) psychology: positivism is giving way to social constructionism. Consequently, this paper argues for a redefinition of terms and reconsideration of methodology in research on language attitudes. More specifically, it argues that mentalistic definitions of attitudes be replaced with social ones, and experimentation with the matched-guise technique with discourse-analytic research. These developments are illustrated with a qualitative study concerning the attitudes or views held by college students towards English in Finland, based on their written responses to a letter-to-the-Editor that basically argued against the use of English in the country for a number of reasons.

The relative clause in colloquial Singapore English

Abstract: In this paper, we demonstrate the specific ways in which the influence of Chinese manifests itself in the structure of the noun phrases containing relative clause modifiers in colloquial Singapore English. We argue that while previous researchers have been correct in pointing out the substratal influence of Chinese, they have not gone far enough in articulating the specific nature of this influence, in particular on the grammar. Colloquial Singapore English relative clauses are interesting because they show an amalgamation of both substrate and superstrate grammatical features. This blending of features is a precise one in which substrate influence is in some way regulated and limited by the superstrate grammar. The combination of superstrate and substrate grammars is illustrated in the constituent ordering of relative clause modifiers, as well as the grammatical behavior of the relative pronoun one. In this paper, we also seek to show that colloquial Singapore English relative clauses are extremely elaborate grammatical structures which argue against new varieties of English being characterized as simplified versions of their superstrate language

Argumentative Strategies in American and Japanese English.

Abstract: This study examines the differences between argumentative strategies in English used by American and Japanese students. Two groups of English essays on capital punishment written by American and Japanese students were analyzed in terms of organization patterns, rhetorical appeals, diction, and cultural influences. It was found that the Japanese students used an organizational unit called ‘reservation’ more frequently and that this gave the impression of circularity to their essays. The American students employed more ‘rational’ appeals than the Japanese students, who by contrast used more affective appeals than the American counterparts. The types of diction preferred by the American students (such as ‘should,’ the + superlatives,’ and ‘I believe’) functioned as ‘emphatic devices’ while those preferred by the Japanese students (such as ‘I think’ and ‘maybe’) acted as ‘softening devices.’ Finally, the American students tended to exhibit cultural tokens such as references to ‘counseling,’‘Biblical references,’ and ‘the tax payer’s standpoint’; the Japanese students, on the other hand, tended to point out the suffering of the victim’s family and friends and concrete incidents, trying to evoke empathy in the reader’s mind.

Getting the story straight: coming out narratives and the possibility of a cultural rhetoric

Abstract: This paper begins with a belief that rhetorical practices play a central role in the construction of self. Specifically, this study explores how the ‘coming out’ stories of lesbians provide a means of negotiating both individual and collective identity within a cultural context that emphatically marginalizes everything ‘queer.’ As stories about rhetorical selves, coming out narratives may also serve political functions, locating rhetoric within the cultural forces of identity management and community building. My paper will explore the work that such narratives do for identity and community politics by emphasizing the mechanisms through which such representations of self sustain, as well as challenge binary logics of sexuality, essential notions of identity, and contemporary theories of rhetorical practice. By giving voice to members of a viable counter-culture, and analyzing stories that trace individual women’s movement from the private closet to the public sphere, this paper enhances cross-cultural studies and rhetorical theory and practice. This rhetorical tradition, I argue, is at the core of community building activities, and an understanding of the conventions for such rhetorical performances of identity is essential to any understanding of the culture and politics of the queer movement for liberation.

‘We were all thegither . . . I think we was all thegither’:was regularization in Buckie English

Abstract: Variation in the past tense paradigm of the verb be (e.g., I were, you was, we was) is widespread amongst English dialects, and is often considered to be the result of analogical levelling. Through an analysis of non-standard was in Buckie English, a variety spoken in a small fishing town in north-east Scotland, we show that the historical record provides the most relevant perspective on the variation. 2nd person singular you, 1st person plural we, plural NPs and existentials highly favour was, however, 3rd person plural they demonstrates categorical use of were. The constraint hierarchy across grammatical person and subject type reflect the most widely-cited patterns mentioned in the historical literature. These findings demonstrate that a relatively isolated community provides an imprint of the past in the present, the tracks of which have been strikingly preserved by longitudinal continuity of the idiosyncrasies of the verb be.

‘Stay queer!’‘Never fear!’: building queer social networks

Abstract: In this paper, I present evidence in support of the hypothesis that gay men and lesbians may use similar linguistics strategies in order to build and maintain queer social networks. Such social networks rely on an assumption of shared queerness that goes beyond gender-exclusive groups. The primary strategies discussed here are the incorporation of cultural understandings that are assumed to be shared, the appropriation of gender stereotypes for humorous effect, the use of covert communication strategies, and the use of co-narration. Taken together, these strategies help index both unique social networks as well as a broader sense of queer community.

Which way? That way? Variation and ongoing changes in the English relative clause

Abstract: Among the syntactic features of contemporary English, the relative clause is one of the most interesting, both theoretically and in respect of variation. This paper examines some of the main ways in which modern English varieties around the world (including both standard and near-standard varieties, and ‘new’ varieties as well as traditional native-speaker usage) differ in respect of relative clause formation, and draws attention to the theoretical upshots of some of the phenomena in question, the likely origins of these phenomena and the possible explanations for cases in which features are shared between apparently unassociated varieties. Studies conducted by the present author and by other scholars are taken into consideration and the prospects for further work on each phenomenon are outlined. The features in question are: omission of subject relative pronouns; use of ‘redundant’ subject relative pronouns in non- finite ‘reduced relative’ clauses; omission of prepositions with relative pronouns as prepositional completives; use of ‘whereby’ or ‘where’ for a range of prepositions with relative pronouns as prepositional completives; avoidance of ‘that’ with human antecedents; hypercorrect use of ‘whom’ for ‘who’; use of ‘that’s’ as possessive of relative ‘that’; loss, re-structuring or reversal of the formal contrasts between restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses.

Nativization in Brunei English: Deviation vs. Standard.

Abstract: It has been argued that a non-standard variety of English, Brunei English (BNE) is being spoken in Brunei (Cane, 1993). In the following paper it is suggested that BNE is still at an early stage of development and that there is still little awareness among its speakers of some of the differences between it and Standard British English (STE) but that BNE is likely to expand and stabilize. A Grammaticality Judgement test was administered to 106 first-year students at Universiti Brunei Darussalam in an attempt to find non-standard uses of English verb forms which were acceptable to subjects regardless of proficiency level. It was hypothesized that such uses would form part of the BNE repertoire. Three exponents which might be assigned this status were identified, two of which were subsequently found to be frequent in public texts. The paper explores the possible meanings in BNE of these non-standard uses and argues that they serve an expressive need of BNE speakers. It is suggested that certain STE uses might even have become socially inappropriate in a Bruneian context

English in Albania: Contact and convergence

Abstract: The status of English in Albania has changed as this formerly communist country has embarked on the road to a free market economy. This paper provides an overview of the current status and usage of English in Albania. By taking a historical approach, it outlines the Albanian sociolinguistic context in which such a change has taken place. It also presents evidence of the increasing contact areas of English and Standard Albanian under the new sociopolitical and economic circumstances after the downfall of communism. The paper concludes by drawing attention to the need for further research on English language planning and education in Albania.

On the pragmatics of an androgynous style of speaking (from a transsexual’s perspective)

Abstract: Since the publication of Robin Lakoff’s Language and Woman’s Place (1975), much has been written regarding the distinct language styles employed by men and women in Western culture. For instance, linguists in England and America have repeatedly found men to be more competitive and women more co-operative in discourse. Following the lead of psychologist Sandra Bem, Jennifer Coates has suggested that a speaker who shifts between masculine and feminine styles of speaking will have certain advantages in today’s society, especially in the work environment. This paper considers the pragmatics of style-shifting as related to the experiences of Marty Gomez, a male-to-female transsexual who has met with limited success in passing as female under intense public scrutiny. It illustrates how Marty shifts between what has been considered two distinct styles of speaking in order to (1) maintain the illusion of femininity, (2) set clients of both genders at ease as they pose before an audience of strangers, and (3) entice clients to desire and purchase a product. Marty’s situation reveals much regarding the underlying Western notions of gender and upholds the theories of modern linguists. However, it also shows the limitation of style-shifting when applied in her situation. If Marty appears too feminine, she may lose the sale; too masculine, and she runs the risk of revealing her male self. While Marty herself attributes much of her success in society to her ability to style shift, it is complicated and fatiguing work, not without danger.

Diva in the promised land: a blueprint for newspeak?

Abstract: Hebrew is a fully gendered language: not every noun and adjective, but also every voice and case, is gendered. There is no accepted gender-neutral term (‘it’), although ‘man’ and the male third-person singular is generally taken to include women, despite the protests of feminists. Assigning a particular sex/gender to an inanimate object is arbitrary. The issue of sex and gender in language will be addressed in this paper as a dichotomy not of biology but of performance. It will be suggested that sex is akin to hardware, while gender is like software. Specifically, this paper will analyze the efforts of a successful Israeli singer, Danna International, a male-to-female transsexual, to provide an international syllable-sampling strategy for disco songs that subvert conventions of sex, spelling and cliches. To understand Danna International’s appeal and art, it is helpful to employ Michael Agar’s idea of ‘languaculture’: in this case, the languages (Hebrew and Arabic) and cultures (secular, sacrosanct and sectarian) of Israel and the Middle East, as well as Israel’s gay male subculture (the most overt in the region).

Some Syntactic Features of Swazi English.

Abstract: The paper describes some stable syntactic features of Swazi English. It is thus an extension and elaboration of the discussion in Kamwangamalu and Chisanga’s characterization of Swazi English. They point out that the wh-word is placed last in question formation, time expressions such as ‘I met him last of last week’ occur and idiomatic expressions such as ‘To see once is to see twice’ are used. This paper discusses, among others, the use of the modal auxiliary must, the use of as to, the conflation of the emphatic do with the simple past tense and dangling modifiers as other stable syntactic features of Swazi English. It then elaborates on the use of idiomatic expressions, since in Kamwangamalu and Chisanga’s discussion only a few were mentioned. Finally, as there are few descriptions of Swazi English, the paper advocates more studies on the subject.

Aboriginal words and concepts in Australian English

Abstract: Pluricentric English is caught between the two complementary processes of nativization and homogenization. The former favours the adoption of local expressions and norms, the latter the maintenance of features from the old heritage or from other dominant varieties. The process of the nativization of English may originate in and be enhanced by contact with other languages, resulting in a specific variety which serves to express and to constitute a local cultural identity. The effects of language contact are not restricted to, for instance, the mere addition of loans to a previously structured (mental) dictionary; they are much more pervasive. Language contact may result in a restructuring of the cognitive maps of speakers in their respective cultural contexts. Australian English (AE) shows a number of features that are due to the contact between white and indigenous populations and that are taken to signal part of its local distinctiveness. But the question whether contemporary Australian speakers are aware of the Aboriginal heritage in AE is rarely asked. In fact AE today may lose some of its former distinctiveness and experience problems of communication inside its own epicentre.

The struggle over naming: a case study of ‘queer’ in Toronto, 1990–1994

Abstract: Choice of appropriate terms of self-reference by oppressed groups is often the site of ideological struggle. In the 1990s, lesbians and gays in Toronto are debating the appropriateness of the term ‘queer.’ I document this controversy through a study of opinion pieces, articles, and letters-to-the-editor that appeared in XTRA! (Toronto’s main lesbian and gay newspaper) from 1990–94. Second, I report on an experiment of how the use of ‘queer’ in the mainstream media may affect readers’ attitudes towards gay men and lesbians. Finally, I compare the results with other researchers’ findings on how linguistic meanings are defined as they travel through the dominant culture’s speech community.

Until in Singapore English

Abstract: This paper investigates the syntax and semantics of one word, until, in Standard British English and Singapore English. We show that while until is used in similar fashion in both varieties of English, it has uses in Singapore English which are not available in Standard British English. After having analyzed the syntax and semantics of one particle in Chinese, namely dao, we show the parallel between until in Singapore English and dao in Chinese, and argue that the additional meanings of until in Singapore English are due to the substrate influence of Chinese. It has been extensively documented in the literature that substrate influence is structural in character. Our finding is significant in this respect. The function words of English, as exemplified in the conjunction/preposition until, may undergo change under the influence of the linguistic substratum.

English language cultures in Bulgaria: a linguistic sibling rivalry?

Abstract: In the Bulgarian educational context, a complex matrix of power relations governs English language education. A triangle of international and intercultural relationships has developed. As a result of complex processes of negotiation between Bulgaria, the US, and the UK, distinct English language cultures have evolved. Yet, few studies have systematically investigated language as aid in the changing political and economic milieu of central and eastern Europe of the 1990s. In the face of this void within academic literature, this article addresses the question of how Bulgaria fits into the emerging picture of Core and Periphery English-speaking countries.

Deculturizing Englishes: the Botswana Context

Abstract: In this paper I argue that those instruments normally applied to the analysis of discourse, and which originate in the Western tradition of analysing language, must be used with extreme caution when one analyses and describes New Varieties (of English). To substantiate this claim I will take as an example recent work on the emergence of Batswana English. In this research a traditional methodology was employed in order to give a part-description of language change. In the paper the choice of data, analytical tools and method of description are examined. Furthermore the research findings are discussed in the light of a deculturisation of Western-based analysis, since at the conclusion of the research the tools were assessed as not being wholly appropriate if the analysis was to be interpreted in a functional manner, that is, from the perspective of the owners of the new variety.

The Poet's Language: Foregrounding in Edwin Thumboo's "Gods Can Die.".

Abstract: The poetry of Edwin Thumboo has contributed much to the shaping and definition of Singapore’s English Language poetic canon. In this paper, I explore Thumboo’s esthetic use of consistent foregrounding in the poem gods can die from three perspectives: propositional, textual and interpersonal. Foregrounding refers to the usage of certain linguistic devices for the purpose of attracting attention. In poetry, meaning and esthetic effect are unified through the poet’s deliberate and systematic foregrounding of linguistic devices. Juxtaposed against the backgrounds of the standard language and an often rich and diverse poetic canon, the poet asserts his individuality through the systematic foregrounding of relations between the functional semantic components that together comprise the poem as semiotic object. The approach adopted here is functional-semantic in orientation and based on earlier work carried out by the Prague School and more recently by Michael’A. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan. While it may be argued that the totality of the poet’s message is unlikely to be ever fully captured by even the most careful and detailed linguistic analysis, nevertheless this should not prevent one from attempting to explore the linguistic intricacy of the poet’s handiwork. For from such analysis, we gain an even better appreciation of the texture and meaning of the poem.

Intonation patterns in news broadcasts

Abstract: The range of data investigated in the treatment of English Intonation has been rather too restricted, and emphasis has always been on the expressive or attitudinal function. Besides, the studies have often relied on data collected through isolated utterances and have rarely focused on genre-specific discourse, especially from nativized contexts. This paper investigates the importance of intonation in interactive professional communication, in an attempt to develop a system of discourse intonation analysis for news broadcast genres.

Competing motivations for NP order in Kenyan English

Abstract: Constituent order in Kenyan English is influenced by two motivations: the animacy hierarchy, which results in a tendency to give prominence to noun phrases referring to people, and the discourse pressure to place given information before new information. In this study, the competition between these two conflicting principles in Kenyan English is used as a case study illustrating the application of some typological concepts to the study of new varieties of English. The analysis of spoken Kenyan English in Nyaggah (1990) is extended to Kenyan English news discourse. Some differences between spoken and written Kenyan English point to a tendency towards a more standard native-speaker variety in news discourse. The results also suggest that the animacy hierarchy is the most important determinant of constituent order in Kenyan English. The animacy hierarchy causes the [+human] NP to be placed first in most cases. However, if a [–human] NP competing for the first position is one whose referent is mentioned in the immediately preceding sentence, it becomes more topic- worthy and is less easily shunted into a secondary position. Other possible factors influencing constituent order are outlined.

Beyond the body: Walt Whitman’s lavender language and ‘Out of the cradle endlessly rocking’

Abstract: In contradistinction to recent readings of later editions of Walt Whitman’s poetry, which claim those Leaves represent ‘dehomoeroticized,’ heterosexually-normative texts, I explore one possible way of reading the poetry as gay text, even when homoeroticism is not the apparent poetic subject. This involves reading the instability of the self that is given a central position in the later texts as representing not a retreat from the celebration of the (erotic) self but as a means whereby Whitman can explore the nature of same-sex desire and sexual identity. I argue that the poet figures the self not as an already fully present entity (as in earlier editions) but as the fragmented product of the discontinuity of the self he sees as arising from his own radical sexual difference. This sense of sexual otherness and the discontinuous self it leads to is the subject of several important mid-career poems, especially ‘Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking’ and ‘As I Ebb’d with the Ocean of Life.’