DISCUSSION ON THE USE OF STAINLESS STEEL IN CONSTRUCTIONS IN VIEW OF
SUSTAINABILITY
Barbara Rossi
Department of Civil Engineering, KULeuven – University of Leuven (B).
Recent years have seen an increase in the use of stainless steel in buildings, mainly owing to
its corrosion properties and therefore long service life. Among stainless steels, ferritic and
lean duplex grades are characterized by low nickel content resulting in a more cost-stable and
economic material compared to austenitic stainless steels. These grades have comparable (or
even higher) strength than carbon steel and good corrosion resistance at lower cost. That is
why, lately, they have been more often used in structural components. In this paper, attention
is firstly paid to the advantages associated with the use of stainless steel in recent construction
projects in view of sustainability. Secondly, life cycle analysis and the background of the new
European standard EN 15804 are introduced, including Module D, which allows credits to be
taken now for the eventual reuse or recycling of material in the future, at the end-of-life stage.
Life cycle inventories of stainless steel products (cold-rolled coils and quarto plate) are
presented. Depending on the fraction of material recovered at the end of the lifespan, two
potential impacts (Primary Energy Demand and Global Warming Potential) are presented for
four grades: 1.4301 (AISI 304) and 1.4401 (AISI 316) austenitic grades, 1.4016 (AISI 430)
ferritic grade and 1.4462 (AISI 2205) duplex grade. The influence of module D is underlined.
STAINLESS STEEL IN CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS
General introduction
Stainless steel is a steel alloy that contains more than 10.5% of chromium. The chromium
content in mass ranges from 10.5% to 30% [1]. Depending on the microstructure, four
families of stainless steel exist: martensitic, ferritic, austenitic and austeno-ferritic (duplex)
stainless steels.
Figure 1. Indicative chemical composition depending on the family of stainless steel.
Their physical, chemical and mechanical properties vary with the chemical composition (and
consequently the family) but each of them is characterized by the ability of forming a self-
repairing protective oxide layer providing corrosion resistance, a higher chromium content
enhancing the corrosion and oxidation resistance. In addition to this, nickel – which is present
in the chemical composition of austenitic and duplex grades – extends the scope of aggressive
environments that stainless steels can support. Figure 1 shows the range of chromium and
nickel content of the four families of stainless steels.
The most popular grade is the austenitic grade 1.4301 (AISI 304) containing 18% chromium
and 8% nickel. This grade has excellent corrosion resistance and is highly ductile. In the
construction domain, this grade is available in the following forms: sheet, plate, welded mesh,
bar and sections. More specific alloy additions enhance the corrosion resistance. The 1.4401
(AISI 316) grade containing an addition of molybdenum has improved corrosion resistance
and is usually regarded as the outdoor grade (sometimes even labelled as the marine grade).
While in atmospheres containing chlorides (e.g. indoor swimming pools), especially if the
surface cannot be cleaned regularly, specific grades, such as super austenitic grades 1.4529
and 1.4565 for example, offer good alternatives.
Ferritic grades do not contain nickel. At ambient temperature, the stress-strain behaviour of
these grades is similar to the one of traditional carbon steel while austenitic grades present a
large strain-hardening domain up to 50% of elongation at fracture (see Figure 2). Ferritic
grades differ principally from austenitic grades in that they have higher mechanical strengths
(approx. 250-330 N/mm
2
0.2% proof strength) and lower thermal expansion (10 to 12 10
-6
K
-
1
).
Duplex types, presenting a microstructure made of austenite and ferrite, share some of the
properties of both families, and are mechanically stronger than either ferritic or austenitic
types. Among the duplex family, one distinguished the new lean (low alloy) duplex steels,
characterised by comparable strength to duplex grades and good corrosion resistance at, also,
lower cost.
Figure 2. Typical stress-strain curves for austenitic, ferritic and duplex stainless steel [2].
Examples of applications in the construction domain
Stainless steel is perceived as a highly decorative material, durable and easily maintained as
well as very expensive. In the construction domain, stainless steel was mainly used as
cladding (inside or outside) thanks to its aesthetic expression: the Francois Mitterand Library
in Paris (Arch. Dominique Perrault) where stainless steel mesh was used for the interior
ceiling, the Torre Caja in Madrid covered with patterned stainless steel cladding, the New
Justice Palace in Anvers (see Figure 3) characterized by a shiny stainless steel roofing [2].
Limited examples of stainless steel used in structures – i.e. thanks to reasons such as higher
strength, higher ductility or better retention of strength and stiffness at high temperature – can
be quoted especially because of the higher price of stainless steel compared to carbon steel
equivalent.
New Justice Palace - Anvers
Richard Rogers Partnership, VK Studio
architects, planners and designers, Ove
Arup and Partners
© Régie des Bâtiments
Glass Center - Lommel
Samyn and Partners
© Samyn and Partners
Figure 3. Two examples of Belgian architectural realizations using stainless steel.
One can nevertheless cite, amongst others, the Glass Centre in Lommel (see Figure 3) where
stainless steel supporting frames are combined with glass in a transparent conical dome, the
cable stayed structure of the Stonecutters bridge in Hong Kong (Arch. Ove Arup and
Partners) where stainless steel was used for the outer skin of the upper sections of the bridge
towers, the structure of the Science City in Paris (Arch. Adrien Fainsilber), the structure of the
Metro Station Sainte-Catherine in Brussels (Arch. Ney & partners), the structure of the Saint-
Pierre station in Ghent (Arch. Wefirna), the composite floors of the Luxembourg Chamber of
Commerce (Arch. Vasconi Architects), the structure of the Parliament House in Helsinki
(Arch. Helin & Co Architects) and the Cala Galdana bridge structure (Eng. Pedelta).
Speaking of bridges, stainless steel is usually chosen in recognition of its long-lasting
appearance combined with low maintenance requirement. That is the reason why duplex
grades have occasionally been used in bridges, such as the 1.4462 (AISI 2205) grade used for
the Millennium footbridge in York (Whitby bird and partners) or the lean duplex 1.4162 in the
Siena bridge in Ruffolo (Eng. Pistoletti). The latter does not contain nickel and is therefore
leading to a more economic design as well.
Other structural parts made of stainless steel can also be listed such as glass façade spiders
(carrying the weight of the glass), cladding anchors, post tension tie rods, cables anchoring
heads, fasteners as well as, though in limited examples, rebar in concrete structures. For more
information, the interested reader can refer to [4] to [13].
Certainly, new opportunities for stainless steel take place in the current context of sustainable
development. Firstly, stainless steels have no need for protection (galvanisation or painting)
and maintenance over their life cycle. This has therefore an influence on the total life cycle
environmental impacts and costs. Secondly, certain grades such as the ferritic and lean duplex
grades have no nickel in their chemical compositions. Those grades are therefore much
cheaper and more cost-stable than other – perhaps “even more popular” – grades. Both
reasons taken together can lead to economically and environmentally attractive solutions in
structural applications. Nevertheless, those grades are currently under-used in the construction
domain due to a lack of information about stainless steel in general and about their structural
behaviour in particular.
STAINLESS STEEL WITH RESPECT TO SUSTAINABILITY
Introduction
The construction industry is recognised as vitally important sector because manufacturing the
necessary products and methods for putting in place our physical stock of facilities and
infrastructures. The construction sector directly employs around 20 million people in Europe,
but according to the European Construction Industry Federation, it indirectly influences over
40 million workers. It represents more than 10% of Europe’s gross domestic product. In the
current context of resource depletion, the sector plays a quite important role: it uses the
greatest deal of raw materials, is taking a great deal of the energy consumption (processing
and transport of construction material represent between 5 to 10% of Europe’s energy
consumption), and it is the most contributor to world solid waste. It has thus a significant
impact, both in positive and negative terms, on society and environment.
Sustainability is nowadays rather well defined…at least conceptually. Despite the absence of
a single and largely shared definition, the use of the terminology sustainability in the
construction domain is rapidly spreading. After its fast development over the past century –
such as remarkable progress in green technologies, material science and erecting techniques –
we are facing an increasing complexity of the demand to achieve sustainability in the whole
production chain. Particularly, the building sector is receiving increasing attention in
worldwide policies for sustainable development. This attention arises from its energy
consumption (buildings are responsible for more than 40% of Europe’s energy consumption)
and Green House Gas (GHG) emissions. Certainly, in the current context of resource
depletion, sustainable buildings are often confused with energy efficient buildings. However,
![Table 1 Stainless steel recovery rates per application sectors, [31].](/figures/table-1-stainless-steel-recovery-rates-per-application-ieh2io52.webp)
![Figure 2. Typical stress-strain curves for austenitic, ferritic and duplex stainless steel [2].](/figures/figure-2-typical-stress-strain-curves-for-austenitic-1jp73pz6.webp)