The “Hypolepis rugosula complex” has been the subject of great debate among pteridologists: some have considered H. rugosula a single subcosmopolitan (or circum-Antarctic) species, whereas others have considered it a species-complex, encompassing several species. In the 1920s and 1930s, four geographically distinct varieties of H. rugosula were recognized. In this work, we present a new taxonomy (with new combinations and statuses, as well as typification and full synonymy), together with complete distribution data for the species, with an infraspecific classification based on morphological and biogeographic perspectives. Hypolepis rugosula occurs in southern temperate regions and high-elevation tropical regions of the Americas, Africa (including Madagascar), Oceania and the Philippines, as well as in some isolated oceanic volcanic islands (e.g., Saint Helena and Tristan da Cunha). Here, 15 geographically distinct subspecies are recognized. All subspecies are geographically segregated from each other, except in New Zealand, where two occur sympatrically—possibly due to two different arrival and colonization times. Four patterns of “indument” (referring to catenate and glandular hairs collectively) are distinguished. Different lineages are successful in their respective habitats; we observed two lineages with different ploidy levels (tetraploid and octoploid). Although long-distance dispersal is the best explanation for the extant distribution of H. rugosula; we do not exclude vicariance as a possible explanation for their occurrence on the land masses that were once united as Gondwana. Therefore, we are assuming that a fern species could remain unchanged for more than 70 Myr, and we are adopting the refugia theory, albeit with a different focus.

/pdf/subspecies-of-hypolepis-rugosula-dennstaedtiaceae-2i2cq9wz1k.pdf

New Zealand South Island

Subspecies of Hypolepis rugosula (Dennstaedtiaceae; Pteridophyta) around the world: morphological and biogeographic perspectives

v Acknowledgements vi List of Figures vii List of Tables viii Abbreviations ix Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Research Purpose and Questions 4 Field Area 5 Thesis Structure 6 Chapter 2: Tourism and the ‘Double Whammy’ 7 Tourism and Threatened Mobility 7 Peak Oil 10 What is peak oil? 10 Conventional and unconventional oil 10 Conventional oil supply constraints 11 When is peak oil likely to occur? 12 Transition to alternative energy sources 14 Implications for Tourism 17 Climate Change 18 Anthropogenic Warming 18 Implications for Tourism 20 New Zealand Implications 21 Wicked Problems 24 Chapter Summary 26 Chapter 3: Methodology 27 Research Approach 27 Positionality 28 Data Collection and Analysis 29

New Zealand South Island

Citations

Subspecies of Hypolepis rugosula (Dennstaedtiaceae; Pteridophyta) around the world: morphological and biogeographic perspectives

Local Implications of Globally Restricted Mobility A study of Queenstown's vulnerability to peak oil and climate change