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Psychological risk factors for childhood nonhuman animal
cruelty
Citation for published version:
Hawkins, R, Hawkins, E & Williams, J 2017, 'Psychological risk factors for childhood nonhuman animal
cruelty: A systematic review', Society and Animals, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 280-312.
https://doi.org/10.1163/15685306-12341448
Digital Object Identifier (DOI):
10.1163/15685306-12341448
Link:
Link to publication record in Edinburgh Research Explorer
Document Version:
Peer reviewed version
Published In:
Society and Animals
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Download date: 09. Aug. 2022
Running head: CHILDHOOD ANIMAL CRUELTY: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
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Psychological Risk Factors for Childhood Animal Cruelty: A Systematic Review
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Roxanne D. Hawkins
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, Emma L. Hawkins
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and
Joanne M. Williams
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,
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The University of Edinburgh
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Author Note
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School of Health in Social Science, the University of Edinburgh
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Division of Psychiatry, University of Edinburgh
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Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Roxanne Hawkins, School of Health in
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Social Science, the University of Edinburgh Medical School, Teviot Place, Edinburgh
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Contact: s1477956@sms.ed.ac.uk
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CHILDHOOD ANIMAL CRUELTY: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Abstract
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Despite growing research into human-animal relationships, little is known about childhood
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cruelty to non-human animals. The purpose of this review was to investigate the potential
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psychological risk factors for childhood cruelty to animals. The aim was to assemble,
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synthesise and evaluate the quality and breadth of existing empirical research and highlight
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areas in need of further study. The review reveals a myriad of potential psychological risk
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factors associated with childhood animal cruelty, but highlights the decrease in publications
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on this topic over time and the lack of high quality publications. Investigating the factors
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underlying cruel behaviour towards animals has great implications for animal welfare and
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child wellbeing, as well as being vital for designing and implementing successful universal
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and targeted interventions to prevent cruelty to animals.
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Key words: Animal Cruelty, Childhood, Human-Animal Interactions, Prevention, Risk
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Factors
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CHILDHOOD ANIMAL CRUELTY: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Childhood Animal Cruelty
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Ascione (1993) defined animal cruelty as “socially unacceptable behavior that
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intentionally causes unnecessary pain, suffering, or distress to and/or the death of an animal”
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(p.228). Motivation can be defined as “an internal force originated from a need not satisfied
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which impels the individuals to be involved in a specific behaviour” (Schiffman & Kanuk,
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2004). Ascione (2005) proposed a classification system for the underlying motivations of
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animal cruelty behaviour. The first category, explorative/curious animal abuse, likely applies
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to very young children who may hurt non-human animals unintentionally due to a lack of
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supervision and/or a lack of knowledge about the humane treatment of animals; they may
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lack the cognitive maturity needed to understand cruelty to animals and may benefit through
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appropriate animal related education. The second category, pathological animal abuse, is
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likely to apply to children who are slightly older, where cruelty to animals may be
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symptomatic of psychological difficulties. Children who fall into this category may suffer
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from personality, conduct or other psychiatric disorders but may not yet have had
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professional diagnosis (animal cruelty is part of the diagnostic criteria for Conduct Disorder;
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American Psychological Association, 2013). The third category, delinquent animal abuse,
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applies to adolescents where animal cruelty may be part of a broader pattern of delinquent
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and antisocial behaviour (Walters & Noon, 2015). Other factors associated with childhood
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animal cruelty include: peer reinforcement, behaviour imitation, mood enhancement, sexual
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gratification, forced animal abuse, attachment to animals, phobias of particular animals,
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abusive experiences and post-traumatic play, self-injury, rehearsal for interpersonal violence
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and participating in animal abuse as a vehicle for emotional abuse (Ascione et al., 1997).
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CHILDHOOD ANIMAL CRUELTY: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
On initial inspection, research on childhood animal cruelty emerges from many
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disciplines and, without systematic review, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions from the
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literature. To date, there have been no systematic reviews on the topic of childhood animal
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cruelty.
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The Cochrane Collaboration and the National Institute for Health and Clinical
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Excellence assess available evidence to inform guidelines, policy and practice (Saks &
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Allsop, 2007). Systematic reviews are becoming common practice in research and are widely
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believed to be at, or close to, the top of a hierarchy of evidence. With emphasis on judging
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the quality of evidence, systematic reviews help to map out areas of uncertainty and identify
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research gaps, as well as helping to ensure that clinical practice is kept up to date with the
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best research evidence available. “A systematic review enables the reader to appraise
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critically the most robust evidence available in an attempt to synthesize what is known, and
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not known, about the efficacy of particular interventions” (Saks & Allsop, 2007, p. 34).
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Our aim was to conduct a systematic review of published studies that have
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investigated psychological risk factors associated with childhood animal cruelty.
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Psychological risk factors can be defined as “a characteristic at the biological, psychological,
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family, community, or cultural level that precedes and is associated with a higher likelihood
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of problem outcomes” (O’Connell, Boat & Warner, 2009, p.28). Our study aims to provide
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an unbiased synthesis of research in this area for the use of academics, policymakers,
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practitioners and any others interested in this topic. It is vital that we understand any potential
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factors that may play a role in children’s cruel behaviour toward animals in order to
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successfully intervene and foster a positive and beneficial relationship between children and
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animals. It is equally important that we identify strengths and weaknesses in the current
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literature to better inform future studies.
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