1
The ‘expat factor’: The influence of working time on women’s decisions to undertake
international assignments in the oil and gas industry
Dr. Susan Shortland
Faculty of Business & Law
London Metropolitan University
Old Castle Street
London
E1 7NT
UK
+ 44 (0) 20 7423 0000 (tel)
email: s.shortland@londonmet.ac.uk
Corresponding author: Dr. Susan Shortland
Acknowledgments: The author wishes to thank the three anonymous reviewers and the editor
for their helpful input and assistance in refining this paper, and Laura Baker for her help in
preparing the model.
2
The ‘expat factor’: The influence of working time on women’s decisions to undertake
international assignments in the oil and gas industry
Abstract
This article examines the effect of working time on women’s willingness to go on expatriate
assignments in the oil and gas exploration and production sector. The research draws upon an
analysis of two case study firms’ international assignment and working time policies, semi-
structured interviews with 14 Human Resource staff responsible for policy design and
implementation, and a survey of the views of 71 women expatriates, supported by in-depth
interviews with 26 of the survey respondents. The research identifies an ‘expat factor’: assignees
state that long hours are inherent in expatriation and necessary to further their careers. However
in practice, working time is not excessive and flexible working practices are utilised. Hours of
work have little effect on women’s decisions to undertake long-term assignments but alternatives
such as short-term and commuter assignments are unpopular as their working patterns are
disruptive to family life. This article contributes to theory development by linking two discrete
frameworks that explain women’s career choices when they strive to balance their career goals
with their families and by identifying a career compromise threshold when expatriation is
rejected in favour of family considerations. A model is proposed to link working time/patterns to
women’s international assignment participation.
3
Introduction
As organisations globalise their operations and the notion of ‘24/7’ manufacture and delivery of
goods and services becomes increasingly widespread, if not taken for granted, so the expectation
of – and demand for – individuals to work longer hours, undertake different working patterns and
to be accessible in any location becomes the norm. This is of particular relevance to
organisational expatriation whereby individuals (and potentially their family) are transferred
from their home country to work abroad by their employer (Cerdin and Le Pargneux, 2010;
Howe-Walsh and Schyns, 2010). Expatriates are reported to work long hours and work intrusion
has a strong impact on their family lives (Fischmayr and Kollinger, 2010; Shortland and
Cummins, 2007). Practitioner surveys carried out annually or biennially by relocation
management consultancies, such as Brookfield and Cartus, indicate overall growth in employer
demand for international assignees year-on-year with sectors such as oil and gas standing out as
major and increasing users of expatriates (Brookfield, 2009). Given this, under-represented
groups such as women assignees, have become a focus for academic and practitioner research
both generally (Altman and Shortland, 2008) and in industries such as mining and oil where their
expatriate representation is particularly low (Shortland, 2009).
Thus far we know precious little about expatriates’ actual hours of work, the influence
these have on their assignment participation decisions and the effect of organisational policies
and implementation practices on expatriates’ working time such that they can manage both their
work and family lives effectively and enjoyably. Set against this backdrop, the influence of
working time within expatriate participation decision-making is a pertinent area for study. Given
women’s minority status as expatriates (Altman and Shortland, 2008; Hutchings, Lirio and
Metcalfe, 2012), concern over their hours of work might be viewed as esoteric. Yet, it is of major
4
importance. As demand for international mobility increases, a diversity paradox emerges:
availability to undertake assignments is highest at early and late career stages, yet the cost of
expatriation and experience required for it reduces employer demand for young expatriates and
there are relatively few international positions for the most senior. The greatest volumes of
expatriate positions require mid-career individuals – and it is precisely this group that is hindered
in taking up international assignments through family demands (Dickmann and Baruch, 2011).
This research is set within the oil and gas exploration and production sector – an industry
that places emphasis on the organisational expatriation of highly skilled and managerial
personnel (Salt and Millar, 2006). On average, oil and gas firms’ expatriate populations are
around 7% female (ORC Worldwide, 2007). Male-dominated organisations and occupations are
reported as constrained by notions of standard working weeks and expectations of high and
regular levels of overtime (Horrell and Rubery, 1991). For example, the use of rotational
assignments, under which assignees transfer into and out of another country for a repeating set of
short periods (BP, 2010) is a well-established feature of international mobility in the energy and
mining sectors (Brookfield, 2011). This assignment type involves individuals working away
from their families for example, on oil rigs or in remote locations, typically for two or four
weeks on shift, working 12 hours a day, seven days a week, followed by a similar length rest
period, off shift at home (Collings, Scullion and Morley, 2007). As such, while long hours of
work on shift cannot be denied as they typically amount to 84 hours a week, the corresponding
rest period results in working time averaging just half of this (i.e. 42 hours a week) over the
rotation cycle. The oil and gas industry also makes use of other alternative assignment lengths
and patterns such short-term assignments (typically around six months long) and commuter
assignments (whereby the assignee travels regularly to and from the assignment location, leaving
5
family members at home) in addition to traditional one to three year long-term assignments
(Mayerhofer, Hartmann, and Herbert, 2004).
We currently do not know if there is a relationship between working time and willingness
to undertake an expatriate role. Given the oil and gas industry’s increasing demand for
organisational expatriate assignments, its range of assignment types and patterns of international
mobility, the indication that it potentially has a long hours’ culture and that women’s expatriate
representation within it is low, this sector presents a fascinating context in which to address the
research objective of examining the influence of working time on women’s decisions to
undertake expatriation.
Literature review and theoretical framework
While men can achieve their employment goals (potentially including expatriation) without
necessarily losing a family life, women cannot so easily do so (Greenwood, 2001; Linehan and
Walsh, 1999). Women’s family and caring responsibilities place particular constraints upon their
career decision-making resulting in ‘compromise’ (Corby and Stanworth, 2009) and/or
‘satisficing’ behaviour (Crompton and Harris, 1998a, 1998b). Satisficing refers to the actions
taken by women who are unwilling to maximise career goals at the expense of family but wish to
reach a high level in both. Satisficing can be effective in certain professions (for example,
medicine) but is less so in industry at managerial levels where there is less opportunity to vary
working hours and/or patterns to play an active part in raising children (Crompton and Harris,
1998b, 1999). Hence, it might be expected that expatriate roles with their long hours and
requirements for international travel (Fischlmayr and Kollinger, 2010; Pascoe, 2005) – and
