What are cytokines/?5 answersCytokines are small proteins or peptides that act as immunomodulating agents, released mainly by cells of the immune system in response to various stimuli. They play a crucial role in regulating immune responses, inducing inflammation, and modulating immune system activity. Cytokines can have pleiotropic effects, influencing cell differentiation, proliferation, and activation in nearby or distant cells. Classified based on structure and function, cytokines include interleukins, chemokines, interferons, and growth factors. While essential for host defense, certain cytokines like IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α can also contribute to inflammatory and chronic diseases. Moreover, cytokine storms, characterized by excessive cytokine release, can lead to severe conditions like sepsis and acute respiratory distress syndrome. The skin serves as a model system for studying cytokine biology, with implications for dermatology and therapeutic interventions.
What role do cytokines play in the immune system?5 answersCytokines play a crucial role in the immune system by regulating inflammation, immunity, and immune cell growth and maturation. They act as intercellular messengers, mediating the complex interactions between different immune cells. Cytokines are produced by almost every cell in the body except red blood cells and have evolved to include various types such as interferons, interleukins, chemokines, and adipokines. They have pleiotropic effects on immune cells and are involved in immune cell differentiation, inflammation, tumorigenesis, and viral pathogenesis. Cytokines also have a significant role in autoimmune diseases and can serve as diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic biomarkers. In the context of cancer, cytokines are key components of the immune system and are being studied for their potential as therapeutic agents or targets in cancer immunotherapy.
Explain how cytokine signalling lead to interleukin production?4 answersCytokine signaling leads to interleukin production through a series of events. When a cytokine binds to its receptor on the cell surface, it triggers dimerization or conformational change of the receptor, which activates Janus kinase proteins (JAKs). The activated JAKs phosphorylate tyrosines on the receptor and themselves, initiating intracellular signaling pathways. These pathways often involve a cascade of kinases, leading to the activation of substrate proteins within the cell. In the case of IL-6, it can induce IL-6 production in monocytes when stimulated by IL-1. Additionally, IL-6 can increase STAT3 phosphorylation, and inhibition of JAKs, MEK, and PI3K interferes with IL-10 production. Overall, cytokine signaling activates intracellular pathways that ultimately result in the production of interleukins.
What are the mechanisms of action of cytokines produced by cells?3 answersCytokines are low-molecular-weight molecules that play a vital role in intercellular communication and regulate various physiological and pathological events. They are secreted by immune and glial cells and can induce and maintain pain. Cytokines act through specific receptors, such as cytokine receptors, ionotropic glutamate receptors, transient vanilloid receptors, and sodium channels, to modulate pain sensation. Imbalances in pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine expression may contribute to individual pain susceptibility. Cytokines also have effects in the central nervous system, including fever, sickness behavior, and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Cytokines can be packaged into extracellular vesicles (EVs) and their secretion may be regulated by cytokines. The packaging of cytokines into EVs is influenced by the biological state of the cell and the EV biogenesis pathway involved. Understanding the mechanisms of cytokine release and packaging into EVs may have therapeutic implications for regulating innate and adaptive immunity.
Cytokines and chemokines?4 answersCytokines and chemokines are small biologically active molecules that play crucial roles in immune responses, cell-to-cell communication, and immune cell trafficking. Cytokines are soluble mediators that act as messengers of the immune system and are involved in processes such as host defense, inflammation, wound healing, and angiogenesis. They can have both proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory potential, depending on the immune cells present and their state of responsiveness. Chemokines, on the other hand, attract specific populations of inflammatory cells and regulate the trafficking of leukocytes during immune responses. They are divided into different families based on their structure and have diverse functions, including regulating immune cell migration and contributing to autoimmunity. The cytokine and chemokine milieu in the wound microenvironment plays a crucial role in the healing process, and dysregulation of these molecules is involved in the pathogenesis of chronic diabetic wounds.
14)What are therapeutic use of cytokine?3 answersCytokines have therapeutic uses in various fields such as cancer treatment, infectious diseases, autoimmunity, and heart disease. They play a crucial role in regulating the immune system and can provoke or mitigate immune responses. In cancer therapy, cytokines are used as therapeutic agents or targets to enhance the anticancer immune response. Efforts have been made to improve the delivery efficiency, stability, and availability of cytokines in therapeutic applications. In the treatment of melanoma, innovative technological approaches have been developed to improve the safety and efficacy of cytokines, resulting in encouraging clinical activity. Cytokines have also been explored as drugs in immunotherapy for bacterial and viral infections, autoimmune diseases, transplantation, and veterinary medicine. In the field of heart disease, cytokine-based therapies have shown promise in reducing post-infarct heart failure and chronic ischemia by stimulating cell proliferation and mobilization.