Showing papers on "Encoding (memory) published in 1975"

Cognitive perspectives on the development of memory.

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter deals with age-related changes found in memory. The early knowledge of memory development is quickly put to use in tests of intelligence; thus, memory is considered a part of the larger sphere of intellectual functioning. However, memory is treated more or less as a unitary construct. Experimental psychology recognize memory performance as, to a large extent, a function of the technique of measurement; but not until the advent of the information-processing models was memory pursued vigorously as a construct in its own right. The information-processing model suggests critical points in the memorial process where developmental changes occur—initial encoding, acquisition, storage, and retrieval—and where this process may be linked to other important aspects of cognition. Initial encoding involves language even in preschool-age children. Semantic information is coded for storage in a wide range of experimental tasks across a wide age range.

Two types of information in picture memory.

Abstract: It is assumed that recognition memory for pictures is based on two types of information. The first is information about specific details in a picture. The process of encoding this type of information is identified with what N. H. Mackworth and others have termed looking at "informative areas" in pictures. The second informational component is designated as "general visual information." Two experiments were carried out investigating (a) the extent to which recognition responses to pictures are based on specific detail vs. general visual information, (b) whether the amount of specific detail information may be manipulated by varying the complexity of a target picture, and (c) the rate at which the two types of information are acquired. The results indicate that the rate of encoding specific details varies with the number of potential informative areas in a pictures and, given that a detail is encoded, memory performance is not substantially affected by target complexity, exposure time, or presence or absence of a mask.

The Effect of Encoding and an External Memory Device on Note Taking

Abstract: College students were randomly assigned to seven note-taking and review conditions in order to determine the relative importance of the functions of encoding and either an externally provided or a personally produced memory device Results of the post-test showed that a combination of encoding and reviewing either one’s own notes or an outline of the lecture produced the best recall scores, while either personally encoding notes or being provided with a lecture outline during the lecture accompanied by “mental” review produced the least recall The findings are discussed in terms of practical suggestions for professors and their students

Generative Processing of Hierarchically Organized Words.

Abstract: The 90 individually run subjects learned and were tested for their free recall of a conceptually unrelated hierarchy of words, a randomly arranged, or a properly arranged conceptual hierarchy, under instructions to process the words either by generating hierarchical associations among them or by copying them. As predicted, recall of every type of hierarchy increased markedly with generative instructions [p < .001], with the greatest gain occurring for the randomly arranged hierarchy. Type of hierarchy also affected recall [p < .001]. The results tend to support the generative model of encoding, a model which emphasizes the active construction of distinctive as well as semantic associations. The nature of the information encoded in long-term memory is a central issue in multistage models of memory and in levels-of-processing models of memory. Multistage models often contrast acoustic or phonetic processing with semantic processing to describe how information is encoded into short-term memory and long-term memory respectively. Across experiments with multistage models, semantic processing varies in meaning from a circular definition of it as any processing that results in longterm recall, to carefully detailed statements about the abstract semantic attributes and markers, networks of lexical meanings, taxonomical organizations, and hierarchical retrieval cues involved in long-term recall. However, in nearly all of these definitions, the processing of abstract meanings is of primary concern. Models that rely primarily on the processing of abstract categories of meaning to account for long-term memory may be unnecessarily limited in the range of encoding variables they include. Levels-of-processing models, such as the generative model presented below, omit the stages

Cognitive organization and coding of social structures.

Abstract: This article intends to investigate the manner in which social information is stored in and retrieved from memory. In particular, we examine memory for social information denned by the "balance" principle. Constructive encoding models are compared with models positing a general drift (in memory) toward

Structural and transient components of memory.

Abstract: The decomposition of free recall serial position curves into permanent and transient components (primary and secondary memory, Waugh & Norman, 1965) is widely accepted. In this paper, a hypothesis is proposed directly relating the permanent memory component to a vector quantity which reflects sequential allocation of attention during encoding. In conjunction with a previously published model for encoding and retrieval in free recall (Hogan, 1975), the hypothesis is shown to break down predicted serial position curves into permanent and transient components, in a manner analogous to but in various ways less restrictive than the decomposition proposed by Waugh and Norman.

Automatic system for providing telephone number information service

Abstract: In an automatic telephone information retrieval system, each subscriber entry is encoded according to primary name, secondary name, primary address, secondary address, generic occupation and specific occupation. The entire contents of a local telephone directory may be electronically stored at memory addresses based upon the above encoding. Statistical methods are used to ensure a workable distribution of subscriber entries over the available memory addresses. The information is retrieved from memory by successively dividing the memory into "divided down" portions. Division points, which are boundaries between neighboring divisions, are designated in a form directly convertible into address coordinates of a random access core storage to speed information retrieval. Electronic calculating and comparing circuits automatically search the memory as a function of the division points, and also provide rapid and automatic address range computations. The system is geared to operate with incomplete subscriber entry data, and in many instances corrects operator errors.

Encoding scheme for failure detection in random access memories

Abstract: A virtual encoding scheme for use in random access memories is disclosed. Data errors, incorrect memory word access errors, and errors resulting from multiple memory word access are all detectable through use of the encoding scheme. The novel approach includes the generation of two distinct check code fields which are stored along with the data. A first check code field is generated as a function of the data and is capable of reflecting all unidirectional data failures. A second check code field is generated as a function of the address of the memory word containing the data and is capable of reflecting incorrect memory word access. The two check fields can be stored either in the same physical memory location as the data or in a supplementary memory at an address numerically identical to that at which the data is kept. During readout, the two check fields are regenerated and compared to those previously stored.

Encoding strategy and retroactive interference in short‐term memory

Abstract: .— The effect of encoding strategy upon retroactive interference in STM was studied. The subjects were presented two trigrams for retention with the Brown-Peterson method. In half the cases they were to recall both trigrams, in half to recall only the first. The results showed higher recall with the associative than with the rehearsal strategy. An increase in level of retroactive interference was found to increase number of retroactive interference errors in the rehearsal strategy condition and number of omissions in the associative strategy condition. The results were interpreted in terms of the memory trace integration hypothesis.

Encoding and pitch strength of complex tones.

Abstract: Pitch perception in the human was examined with respect to the level of neural analysis and pitch strength of various complex tones. In binaural conditions, three‐component complex stimuli were presented to each ear in such a way that if a central processor determined pitch from the combined information from the two ears, one pitch would be perceived. If the pitch processor attended to the information from each ear separately, two pitches would be perceived (corresponding to the fundamental at each ear). Two pitches were perceived and the importance of peripheral encoding for pitch perception was supported. Subjects judged the strength of monaurally and binaurally presented stimuli as a function of the spectral region of the frequency components, number of components per complex, and the spacing between components. Pitch strength was discussed in terms of recent theoretical models of pitch.Subject Classification: 65.54, 65.56, 65.62.

Auditory location as an encoding dimension.

Abstract: In two experiments, subjects were given five successive short-term memory tests. In Experiment 1, recall was not significantly facilitated when memory material in the final test was delivered to the ear opposite to the one that received the memory material in the four preceding tests. In Experiment 2, events were presented from two differentially located speakers rather than through headphones. A shift across speakers on the final test did produce proactive interference release. These findings suggest spatial location as a potential encoding dimension of verbal material.

The constructive process of memory for sentences and pictures.

Abstract: The purpose of the present study was to assess the effect of intervening items on the accuracy of recognition memory for pictures and sentences. Subjects were presented a sequence of 24 pictures and sentences, later followed by the presentation of 24 intervening items. Each intervening item corresponded to, but was in the opposite modality as one of the original items. These intervening items were either semantically relevant or irrelevant to the corresponding originals. Subjects then received a "same-different" recognition test which included original and changed items. The presence of a semantically relevant intervening item depressed the obtained values of d' and the probability of a hit, relative to the effects of an irrelevant intervening item. The data are discussed in terms of support for the integration property of constructive memory. The interpretation was that subjects semantically integrated the original items with the relevant intervening items and made subsequent recognition responses on the basis of the integrated memory.

An Analysis of Some Psychological Studies of Grammar: The Role of Generated Abstract Memory

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter reviews several studies indicating that syntactic and semantic structure facilitates verbal learning and memory. Syntactic structure allows the units stored in generated abstract memory to be of a larger size than individual words or nonsense items. The major grammatical constituents seem to function as units of information recalled from generated abstract memory. When items had to be recalled verbatim, there were indications that item strings with syntactic structure require less processing capacity to recode for recall than unstructured item strings, that syntactic structure may serve as an encoding category in generated abstract memory, and that appropriate intonation facilitates the identification of grammatical structure. Although there is some equivocal evidence to indicate that certain rules are used in verbatim learning and memory, there is little indication that such rules are used in processing speech and text for meaning.

Closed-loop theory and the partial recall hypothesis : explanations of the sources of information about knowledge in memory

Abstract: Closed-Loop Theory