Showing papers on "Learning theory published in 1973"

Some Evidence for the Cognitive Primacy of Categorization and Its Functional Basis.

Abstract: Categorization of sound patterns and of objects and events in the real world is basic to learning a language. This thesis was developed by Brown (1956) who termed first language learning "a process of cognitive socialization" involving "the coordination of speech cate gories with categories of the nonlinguistic world [p. 247]." More recently, Lenneberg (1967) has argued that categorization must be the basic cognitive process: "Thus categorization by a principle, or the formation of an (abstract) concept is apparently prior to and more primitive than the association of a sound pattern with a specific sensory experience." And, "the abstractness underlying meanings in general ... may best be understood by considering concept-formation the primary cognitive process, and naming (as well as acquiring a name) the secondary cognitive process. Concepts . . . are not so much the product of man's cognition, but conceptualization is the cognitive process itself [pp. 332-333, italics in the original]." In this view, both differentiation and "interrelating of categories or the perception of and tolerance for transformations" derive from the basic mode of organization which is categorization. Thus, for Lenne berg, words tag cognitive processes and it is words that make these processes seem more static than they actually are. The difference between Brown's (1956) view and Lenneberg's lies in the distinction between categories that exist ready-made in the world outside the child (linguistic and nonlinguistic) and cate gories generated by the child himself. Essentially this is the distinc

Foundations of the theory of learning systems

Abstract: Will reading habit influence your life? Many say yes. Reading foundations of the theory of learning systems is a good habit; you can develop this habit to be such interesting way. Yeah, reading habit will not only make you have any favourite activity. It will be one of guidance of your life. When reading has become a habit, you will not make it as disturbing activities or as boring activity. You can gain many benefits and importances of reading.

Learning through experience and learning through media

Abstract: This paper is concerned broadly with the consequences of two types of experience which may be designated as direct experience and mediated experience, their partial equivalence and substitutability, and their differing potential roles in the intellectual development and acculturation of children. Our analysis will begin with the problem of the nature of direct experience and its effect on development. A clearer conception of the processes involved in direct experience will permit us better to examine the manner and extent m which mediate experience may complement, elaborate and substitute for that direct experience. Much of a child's experience is formalized through schooling. Whether for reasons of economy or effectiveness, schools have settled upon learning out of context through media which are primarily symbolic. Schooling generally reflects the naive psychology which has been made explicit by Fritz Heider (Baldwin, 1967). 3 The general assumption of such a naive psychology is that the effects of experience can be considered as knowledge, that knowledge is conscious, and that knowledge can be translated into words. Symmetrically, words can be translated into knowledge, hence, one can learn, that is acquire knowledge, from being told. Because learning is cognitive, it is possible, according to naive theory, to substitute instruction for learning through experience. Thus, we can tell children what to do and how to do it, and instil wise and proper behaviour without the actual necessity of rewarding and punishing them. It is a common belief among naive educators, how-

Research into Learning Hierarchies

Abstract: Learning hierarchy research began with a small preliminary study by Gagne (1962), in which he attempted to teach seven children how to find formulas for sums of terms in number series. Gagne suggested that this skill could not be acquired unless the learners possessed certain prerequisite skills, which were identified by asking "what would the individual have to be able to do in order that he can attain successful performance on this task, provided he is given only instructions? [p. 358]." The same question was then applied to each of the prerequisite skills, thus identifying more skills; the process was continued until very basic skills were reached. In this way Gagn6 derived a network of elements which he called a hierarchy of knowledge. He taught the skills to the seven children, and observed that none of them acquired a skill without also acquiring all of the skills that were shown as subordinate to it in the hierarchy. This result suggested that, if hierarchies were generally valid representations of the sequences in which skills or elements of knowledge must be learned, then they would be valuable tools for shaping more effective instruction for the acquisition of problem-solving skills and knowledge in general. Despite this important implication, few investigations of the validity of hierarchies were performed in the subsequent decade, and these were almost totally restricted to subject matter in mathematics and science, and generally ended in inconclusive results. Causes of the inconclusive results need to be identified to improve future research.

A theory of conversations and individuals (Exemplified by the Learning Process on CASTE)

Abstract: The main tenet of the theory is that the minimal experimental situation for making psychological observations is a conversation. The logical and structural requirements for making such observations are presented in a series of icons which dynamically represent formalisms in the abstract theory of self-reproducing automata. Two sorts of stable, self-reproducing systems are distinguished: mechanically characterized individuals (M-Individuals) and psychologically characterized individuals. (P-Individuals). A conversation is a P-Individual (a selfreproducing class of procedures) that is executed in one or more of a restricted class of M-Individuals (processors). The theory is exemplified by work on learning and teaching using CASTE (Course Assembly System and Tutorial Environment) which is itself a physical embodiment of the theory in the form of a vehicle for observing conversations. Other exemplifications are given as interpretations, within the current theory, of the paradigms extant in conventional experimental psychology.

Implications of Learning Theories for Adult Instruction

Abstract: A review was undertaken which (A) divided the major learn ing theories currently adhered to into three approaches: 1. be haviorism, 2. neo-behaviorism, and 3. cognitivism; (B) summarized the central constructs of eight prominent learning theories; (C) delineated the explicit implications of each learning model for in struction and compared the theories along several dimensions; (D) presented an integrated discussion of the learning theories focusing on the instances in which these formulations are in agree ment and disagreement; (E) reviewed three technologies of instruc tion: 1. Harvey, Hunt, and Schroder's conceptual systems ap proach, 2. Miller's process model, and 3. Dubin's updating model, and discussed their relevancy to instructional approaches to adult learning; (F) suggested topics for future investigation by adult education researchers.

Behavior Modification In Teacher Education.

Abstract: The coritent of this chapter is the modification of teaching behavior treated as a general class of behaviors. Teacher education programs may be conceptualized as behavior modification systems designed to modify complex behavioral repertoires which are adaptable to a variety of learning problems. Developing a teacher education program which applies behavior modification concepts would be simpler if we knew how to use these principles to control student learning. At the present time, however, only a relatively small number of student behaviors can be brought under behavioral control by applying these principles. Some of these are behaviors which the student must have available to participate in learning experiences; for example, bringing student attending behavior under behavioral control prepares students to acquire the behaviors which are the goals of the learning system (30, z6). Behavior modification systems, however, have not been developed for teaching complex behaviors such as problem-solving. Other teacher behaviors, such as planning and evaluating, may be taught in systems which apply behavior modification principles, but such systems are not yet available (37). Thus, there are three problems to be solved in designing behavior modification systems for teacher education. First, systems must be designed which facilitate the acquisition of diverse classes of teaching behavior, such as developing goal descriptions, planning learning strategies, evaluating, establistfing mutually self-enhancing relations with students, using teaching methods, and acquiring professional attitudes. The second problem is to train teachers to

Cognitive Organization and Learning.

Abstract: : In learning complex material, one must first understand the material, after which learning and remembering follow automatically. The conventional psychological literature says little about the processes involved in the learning of complex material which may take weeks, months, or years to be learned, although most adult learning is of this form. The paper examines some of the issues that are involved in this type of learning, issues such as the nature of understanding, the types of hypotheses that subjects bring to bear on the learning process, and the types of processes that need to be studied in order to understand the psychology of learning.

Meaningfulness and the Recall of Textual Prose

Abstract: Meaningfulness was found to be strongly related to the recall of linguistic subunits in textual prose. The generality of the relationship was evident with two samples of textual prose, with linguistic units of two different sizes, with two different methods of measuring meaningfulness, and at two retention intervals.

A conceptual framework for learning effecting the development of ability factors.

Abstract: The relationship between learning, development, and ability factors is considered. After defining learning as effects changes in ability factor scores, some of the more learning principles are stated within this framework. types of learning are integrated with the concept of the ment of ability factors. This account provides for a leaning view of the growth of ability factors, which is hypothesized provide the theoretical underpinnings for quantitative and qualitative (structural) changes in ability factor scores. In this way, mechanistic and organismic approaches to development are brought together in considering interindividual differences in intraindividual changes over the life span.

Hierarchies in Children's Learning: A Symposium.

Abstract: There has been a continuing increase in the application of hierarchy theory to the problems of instruction and evaluation, since Gagne first used the term “hierarchy” in his theory of how human beings acquire complex skills and knowledge. This article, based on a 1970 symposium of the American Educational Research Association, presents an overview and analysis of the use of learning hierarchies in instruction and research, examines some current research on learning hierarchies, and considers the implications of this research for instructional psychology and for theories of cognitive development.