Showing papers on "Rivalry published in 1981"

The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914

Abstract: Since its first publication in 1980, Professor Kennedy's masterly account of the rivalry between Great Britain and Germany in the period leading to the First World War has established itself as the definitive work on the subject. Over ten years of research in more than sixty archives in Britain and Germany culminated in this full-scale, meticulous analysis. The result reaches far beyond a diplomatic narrative of relations between the two countries. It concerns itself with a thorough comparison of the two societies, their political cultures, economies, party politics, courts, the role of the press and pressure groups, and other factors. This work therefore contributes to the larger debate on the nature of foreign policy, as well as to the specific controversies over the British-German antagonisms that eventually led to war.

Big Business in China: Sino-Foreign Rivalry in the Cigarette Industry, 1890-1930.

Abstract: 1. Introduction: Sino-Foreign Commercial Rivalries 2. Penetrating the China Market 3. The Rise of Commercial Rivalries 4. Motives for Merger 5. Commercial Campaigns in the May Fourth Movement 6. The Postwar Golden Age 7. Business and Politics 8. Conclusion: Imperialism, Nationalism, and Entrepreneurship Appendix: Statistical Tables A Note on the Sources Abbreviations Notes Bibliography Glossary Index

The Proto-History of Franchise Bidding*

Abstract: Competition-as actual behavior rather than theoretic formalism-finds its meaning in the notion of rivalry, but intellectual history holds two distinct notions of economic rivalry, each aligned with a different structure of property rights. The most common, non-technical use of the term "competition" describes a contest between two or more parties to achieve the same prize, e.g. economic profits. The contest is open to all rivals in the sense that each has equal access to the relevant economic markets. This requires a structure of property rights that permits ownership to be atomistic, decentralized, and participatory, which in turn allows every seller an equal right to serve customers and every buyer the freedom to choose those goods he wants. It is this wide freedom of action that characterized the competitive "model" of Adam Smith, who gave the paradigm outlined above its most forceful early expression. In this market system moreover, legal institutions generally uphold property rights in commodities traded as long as they are acquired in good faith without fraud or force. Another kind of rivalry is described by the contest to obtain an exclusive right to serve. The rivalry described by this form of competition is temporary and discontinuous, as compared to the continuous and quasi-perpetual rivalry of open competition. It usually takes the form of competitive bidding to secure a franchise, the monopoly status of which is subsequently sustained by force of law. In this case, the State is the lawful repository of the property right it franchises. Under properly designed contractual safeguards, franchise bidding may result in the manufacture and sale of goods at minimum average total costs of production.' But it will not pass the full test of economic efficiency, where price equals marginal

The Causes and Origins of the North American Fur Trade Rivalry: 1804–1810

Abstract: Two ideas contrary to those of the existing literature are advanced. First, the early years of the Hudson's Bay Company/Northwest Company duopoly were characterized by passive rather than by predatory competition. Second, the Hudson's Bay Company initiated the changes that eventually led to predatory competition. The Company's financial crisis of 1809–1810 brought about by the decline in demand due to the Napoleonic Wars shocked it out of complacency and into aggressive competition.

Anglo-Russian Rivalry in Central Asia 1810-1895

Abstract: Published in 1981, Anglo-Russian Rivalry in Central Asia 1810-1895 is a valuable contribution to the field of Middle Eastern Studies.

Ethiopia and the Red Sea. The Rise and Decline of the Solomonic Dynasty and Muslim-European Rivalry in the Region

Abstract: The merits of his book are that it provides background information on the present crises in the Horn of Africa and welcome new interpretations on the history of Eritrean, Somali, and Oromo ethnic groups. The latter group especially are not depicted as barbarian hordes who invaded Ethiopia, but are regarded as a people with an advanced socio-political organization. This Gada system allowed the Oromo to maintain their identity through the years, in site of the process of Amharization. The Oromo invasion of Ethiopia in the sixteenth century weakened Amhara polity, making it difficult for the Amhara to assimilate them. At the same time the Oromo made Mohammed Gragne's incursion in the Abyssianian plateau easier. Gragne, probably of Somali origin, tried to fulfill a Somali dream to occupy Ethiopia. Jihads were regularly conducted against Ethiopia, but these have been ignored by historians because of their limited objctives. Ethiopian threats to Muslim trade interests and fear of an Ethiopian alliance with Christian Europe provided the catalyst for the Muslim holy war against Ethiopia. Gragne's victory derived from internal weakness of the Solomonian dynasty and the erosion of the central government power. Continuous and fruitless wars exhausted Ethiopia's resources, making it impossible to introduce much need reforms. Hence, the Solomonic dynasty remained dependent on traditional and feudal administration. The Orthodox church did not fulfill the expectations of the rulers to assimilate the heterogeneous population; neither did it participate in the central administration, because of a \"chosen people\" complex. Ethiopians, being a people of nobless, priests, soldiers, and farmers maintained taboos concerning handcrafts and mercantile activities. They allowed foreigners to deal with the Red Sea trade. The Amhara had an indirect connection with Massawa through the Turks who closed or opened that avenue with the outside world according to the needs of the Ethiopian government. The Ethiopian claim on Massawa was not pressed because of weakness or because of more pressing interests, such as the conquest of the southern lands. This book is valuable for its clear synthesis of the intricate relations of Christian Ethiopia with is neighbors, Islamic and Oromo. Although the book claims to study commercial relations and international politics of the Horn of Africa, in reality it is a history of the conquests and the struggle for survival of the Solomonic ruling class. Furthermore, the new insights provided here have

The Problem of the Public Good in "The Federalist"

Abstract: Madison insisted in The Federalist that the public good derives not from "virtue" but from the diversity and rivalry of private interests. Yet by 1792 Madison had argued the necessity of a political party as the permanent representative of republican virtue. The author traces these changes and argues that it is doubtful if American political practices ever conformed to The Federalist position. Without some provision for the institutional representation of the public good-as in the party system-the regime of The Federalist, like the city in speech in Plato's Republic, was fated to disappear after a momentary existence.

Hungary and Suez, 1956: The Limits of Soviet and American Power:

Abstract: In the autumn of 1956, the Soviet-American hegemony over the international order that had emerged from World War II was severely shaken. Each Great Power was defied by its allies: the Soviet Union by Poland and Hungary; the United States by Great Britain and France. Each attempted to quell this defiance and succeeded in the end. The paradox was that, notwithstanding public rhetoric criticizing their rival's actions, both countries found themselves powerless to act in their rival's sphere of influence. And rather than be drawn into a war over an area they had no prospect of controlling, each ended up aiding the other's attempts to rein in its allies by either passive acquiescence or more active measures. The result was a reinforcement of the Soviet-American bi-polar order, which was to continue unchallenged for at least another decade. In Eastern Europe, the Soviet interpretation of the concept of 'different roads to socialism' recognized by Khrushchev during his visit to Yugoslavia in 1955 was shown to be narrowly restrictive. Moscow's hegemony over its East European satellites was reconfirmed with the first use of what later became known as the Brezhnev Doctrine.' In the Middle East, the last vestiges of French and British colonial domination were destroyed and replaced by a burgeoning Soviet-American rivalry for influence. The area was becoming too important economically and strategically for the United States and the Soviet Union to stand on the sidelines any longer. With the assistance of newly-acquired documents from the Department of State through the Freedom of Information Act, and

Rivalry and externalities in secondary art markets

Abstract: As is the case with other field theories, Urban Economics, Environmental Economics, etc the microeconomics of the arts attempts to derive a set of particular propositions from the general propositions of Economic Theory In the process a substantial amount of cross-fertilization takes place The specific characteristics of art markets require modification or amplification of some general propositions of economic theory, which in turn may offer novel and possibly useful insights as well as testable hypotheses The following propositions appear to emanate from the present paper In general markets R & D efforts are directed towards product or process innovation For the most part, a known consumer technology exists Innovation in art markets involves product creation as well as the creation of a consumer technology capable of deriving satisfaction from consumption of the new product In open markets, a non-patentable product would entail excessive free ridership Such a state of affairs may discourage innovation Primary sellers would tend to adapt to narrowly changing consumer technologies Such was the case during most of art history up to the late 19th century At present, museums and art critics act as quasi patent offices, which fosters innovation by assuring a positive sum game A new consumer technology is expected to be demand-augmenting Not necessarily in the sence of McCain [12] where discontinuous jumps in demand are postulated Even if such shifts were to occur in individual demand curves, market demand will nevertheless be continuous The present model presumes that the augmentation is mostly due to increasing numbers of art buyers entering as the new consumer technology casues substitution of one style for another (or one fad for another) Syndicate behavior is induced by the winners of the race who have successfully established a new consumer technology and subsequently extend an umbrella over the membership In this manner the spoils are shared more equitably This is a peculiarly modern phenomenon In the past one could not put a Teniers above a Rembrandt or a Polidoro above a Raphael The generally accepted rules of decorativeness, that is, craftmanship and composition were obvious and immediately perceptible by all In certain instances syndicate behavior favors single leadership by an established dealer, or a small group of dealers with a proven track record in spawning new technologies Collectors, too, are involved, by overpaying for art The discovering collector creates entry barriers for other collectors and thus has a monopoly of discovery of purely “intellectual appeal” art Followers may opt to reduce their rivalry in exchange for assurances that once the new technology is in place, they will be given the opportunity to recycle the art brought into being by the leader or leaders Under certain conditions, as analyzed in the foregoing, this constitutes an optimal strategy As in the classical case, entry reduces investment and drives rents to zero, if each firm invests a roughly equivalent amount in support of the prevailing consumer technology There arises the limiting case, equivalent to pure competition (see EQ 10) On the other hand, several counterveiling strategies are possible For example, overpayment, as in the case of Rothko This limits the artists' output in the market Leftover art is donated or acquired by museums Such art is no longer competitive, as opposed to art held by other collectors, which, diminishes art'sscarcity value The most probable outcome of a Cournot-Stackelberg type behavior is a succession of leader-follower or leader-recyler type syndicates, each successively dissolving as new consumer technologies replace old ones It is, of course, possible for several specialized syndicates to operate contemporaneously The rate of turnover clearly depends on the speed of dissemination of information The curator, critic, trustee, consultant has a vested interest in episodic art and an spawning new consumer technologies: if this were not so, there would be no need for the pre-eminance of the critic He is the magician, the priest, the medicine man who “knows” the secret language and penetrates the mysteries

The politics of socialisation: recruitment and training for journalism

Abstract: THE paper demonstrates that the provision of formal training in journalism, as possibly in any other industry or occupation, is not solely determined by a specific range of ‘necessary’ skills. On the contrary, politico-cultural factors may be equally, if not more, important. The paper finds the ‘professionalisation’ hypothesis insufficient, however, as an explanation for the emergence of a national system of compulsory training. It notes that the character of training has been greatly influenced by the requirements of a specific sector of the industry, on which, significantly, the National Council for the Training of Journalists (NCTJ) has been heavily dependent for financial support and legitimacy. Ambiguity in this sector's approach to graduate trainees created a vacuum which was one factor that encouraged the development of university and polytechnic based journalism and communications courses. More fundamentally, potential competition for authority in training has developed from the establishment of an Industrial Training Board for Printing and Publishing (PPITB) with statutory responsibility for training in journalism. These developments inspired survival/adaptation responses from the NCTJ, including the formulation of a broader structural and financial base, a more positive attitude towards graduate training, a wider range of functions and a reappraisal of alliances. These in turn have had consequences for training content. Analyses of training in terms of ‘socialisation’ or ‘professionalisation’ which fail to take into account such aspects of industrial structure and political rivalry may be misleading.

Market Structure and Product Innovation

Abstract: Much of the discussion on the topic of market structure and innovation has focused upon the relationship between market structure and the research and development effort of firms (or industries). The issues of concern in this literature are the effects of monopoly power, firm size, the ability to diversify and the degree of rivalry upon the allocation of resources to research and development.' An important issue that has been ignored is the type of good that will be introduced by firms. The purpose of this paper is to extend the literature by examining the incentive to produce goods which are either substitutes or complements to existing goods. We demonstrate that the character of new goods is dependent upon the profit incentive of potential innovation both inside and outside the industry producing the existing good. In deciding whether or not to introduce the new product, a firm has to consider three factors: the demand, the cost and the research activities of other firms. Figure 1 provides a schematic diagram for the firm's decision process. It is clear that in reality the firm must consider the probability associated with it being the sole source of a new good and the probability associated with the introduction of the new good by other firms. In this paper, we assume that the firm believes that it will be the only potential source of the new good; i.e. the new good will not be provided by other firms regardless of whether or not the firm produces the new good. This is path A in Figure 1. Though this is a special case, it does provide a necessary first step to a more general model. In our framework, potential innovators are classified according to the relationship between the new product and their current output. We define an "outsider" as a firm for which the new product has no effect on the demand for its current product, and an "insider" is defined as a firm whose demand is affected by the new product. We also assume that in-

Anglo‐American Rivalry and the Evolution of Canadian Petroleum Policy to 1930

Abstract: 'I AM COMMANDED by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to state that it has been brought to their notice that there has been an important discovery of Petroleum Oil in the North Western Province of Canada. 'x Soon to reach the hands of Canada's governor general, Lord Grey, this confidential communiqu• of March x 905 emphasized the importance of securing oil supplies for the British navy in British territory and requested that the Admiralty '... be furnished with any information that may be available as to the oil industry in the North Western Provinces, and especially in regard to the latest developments. '2 The Admiralty's request for 'authoritative' information led to the first official assessment of oil prospects in southern Alberta. The consequent report prepared for the governor general by the Department of the Interior in the late spring of x9o 5 noted that prospecting was underway on the Athabasca River, about eoo miles north of Edmonton, and near the international boundary, about 60 miles southwest of Ford Macleod. At the latter point a promising show of oil had been discovered and the minister of the interior pledged to keep the Admiralty fully informed. While in the end the hopes of the Canadian government and the interest of the British Admiralty proved premature, it signalled the careful attention to the development of petroleum resources in the Canadian west of a powerful outside body that for the next twenty years played an important if little-known role in the formulation of the Canadian government's policy toward petroleum exploration. Subsequent drilling in the Waterton area southwest of Fort Macleod

Advertising and Public Policy

Abstract: Over the years public policy has allegedly, if not in fact, been directed towards promoting competition in industry. When it has ostensibly not done so it has been because the ‘public interest’ has been deemed to be a net loser rather than gainer from inter-firm rivalry. For example, scale economies may diminish consumer choice yet reduce costs and so, possibly, prices. This chapter examines the relationship between advertising and each of scale economies, entry barriers and retailing productivity, with a view to ascertaining how advertising can be fitted into a model of industrial competition.

Super Power Rivalry in South West Asia: The Afghan Crisis 1979:

Abstract: N 24 December 1979, 50,000 Soviet troops equipped with tanks, heavy 0 artillcry and helicopter gunships crossed the international boundary into Afghanistan and took control of Kabul. The event was unprecedented in that it was for tlic first t h e that the USSR had stepped beyond the boundaries established a t the end of World War I1 and practically “annexed” a sovereign nation. The previous actions, Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968, were mainly disciplinary in nature and merely sought to reestablish Moscow’s hegemony within it’s imperium. Afghanistan was, on the other hand, a sovereign state, never a part of any alliance and functioned principally as a buffer between the countries of the region. The Soviet move was therefore qualitatively diflerent. By forcefully expanding its international sphcre of direct control, the Soviets in effect have violatcd a fundamental ground rule of East-West relations. The United States which saw the Afghan intervention as a dangcr9us challenge to it’s interests reacted strongly. It did this in three ways: it sought to punish the Russians for their transgression; t o pressurize them until their forces were withdrawn; and, warned them against future agression, while building US military capabilities t o deter other attempts to change the balance of forces between them.’ President Carter suspended grain shipments, the sale of high technology and had the United States boycott the summer Olympics to be held in Moscow. He announced, in what has since then come to be known as the “Carter Doctrine” that America would repel with force any attempt by an outside power to gain control of the Gulf region. He further announced the establishment of a “Rapid Deployment Force” and the strengthening of the naval forces in the Indian Ocean, made pointed overtures to China, including a willingness to sell arms to that coulltry, decided to secure bases in Kenya, Egypt and Somalia, extended aid to Pakistan (President Zia rejectcd this as inadequate), and staged regular overflights of B52 in the Gulf region. The Afghan Crisis was a turning point in the Super Powcr rivalry. What began as an urgent rcflcx to Soviet intervcntion has now under Reagan acquired thc dinlensions of a full-fledged policy of constructing a “strategic entity” stretching from Islamabad to Ankara.* Its principal purpose is to halt any further Soviet move towards the Persian Gulf and the rcgion of ’

Effects of Competition in Concept Attainment: Rivalry, Coaction, and Problem Difficulty

Abstract: Summary The effects of competition on a concept attainment task involving cognitive learning and performance were assessed by isolating two motivational elements in competition within a factorial design Sixty Ss who were either coacting or isolated with or without rivalry inducing instructions solved two difficult concept problems followed by two easy problems It was predicted that either coaction, rivalry, or both would inhibit learning on the difficult problems but facilitate performance on the easy problems For the measure of instance selections to solution, coaction interacted with trials for the difficult problems, indicating the inhibiting effects of coaction, but the differences became nonsignificant when Ss were shifted to easy problems There were no effects for rivalry instructions The results are consistent with the effects of competition on concept attainment found in previous research in which the elements of competition were not isolated

The Indian Ocean - An Area of Future Conflict

Abstract: : This study addresses the growing importance of the Indian Ocean Region to the littorals and non-littoral states including the super powers. After the departure of Great Britain from the area it remained neglected till early 70's when the oil embargo by the Arabs brought home the importance of a region which produces largest amount of oil. The study reveals that the super powers are not only present in greater strength than ever before but are working hard to create stable areas of influence. The littorals, led by India, are against super power presence and see a danger in super power rivalry. Indian perceptions form a major portion of the study which concludes with a recommended role for India, as most Indians see it today. (Author)