Showing papers on "Sexual objectification published in 2009"

A Test and Extension of Objectification Theory as It Predicts Disordered Eating: Does Women's Age Matter?.

Abstract: When predicting disordered eating, models incorporating several of objectification theory’s (B. L. Fredrickson & T. A. Roberts, 1997) core constructs (i.e., sexual objectification, self-objectification, body shame, poor interoceptive awareness) have been empirically supported with women of traditional undergraduate age who are consistent in age with the youthful-ideal prototype for women presented in the media. The present study extended this research by testing these core constructs with women ages 25–68 years (n 330), as their experiences with these constructs may differ as they deviate from this youthful prototype. A multiple-groups analysis comparing these women with women ages 18–24 (n 329) indicated that objectification theory can be extended to women ages 25 and older, as the model provided an adequate fit to the data. However, structural invariance analysis revealed that what takes place within the model may not be identical for these groups. The older group had a stronger relationship between body shame and disordered eating and a weaker relationship between poor interoceptive awareness and disordered eating than did the younger group.

Body Objectification, MTV, and Psychological Outcomes Among Female Adolescents

Abstract: In response to the American Psychological Association's Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls, the present study explored the role of sexually objectifying media—in this case, music television—in a host of psychological consequences among a community sample of adolescents girls (M age = 13 years). Objectification theory posits that the consequences of sexual objectification involve the process of self-objectification. As such, we hypothesized that music television consumption would first and foremost be associated with self-objectification, which would, in turn, predict a number of body-related consequences. The findings support a model in which self-objectification mediates a direct relation between music television viewing and body esteem, dieting, depressive symptoms, anxiety, and confidence in math ability.

A Picture is Worth Twenty Words (About the Self): Testing the Priming Influence of Visual Sexual Objectification on Women's Self-Objectification

Abstract: Extending a major premise of objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), this article tests the notion that visual depictions of sexual objectification of women's bodies can amplify women's state self-objectification (SO) in the short term. After deriving two operationalizations of sexual objectification that conformed to the tenets of objectification theory, results showed that women who were assigned to images of female models with high skin exposure (the first operationlization of sexual objectification) used more negative words to describe their appearance than participants assigned to control images. In addition, the body-display images produced more state SO and more negativity about one's appearance than images of women segmented into body parts (which represented the second operationalization). Implications for objectification theory and media priming effects are discussed.

College Students’ Descriptions of Everyday Gender Prejudice

Abstract: This study examined 104 undergraduate college students (mean age = 19) from the Western United States regarding gender differences in their experiences of gender prejudice. Women (N = 81) and men (N = 22) responded to an online diary for 14 days, resulting in 1008 descriptions of events. Women reported significantly higher levels of negative affect than men during the experiences. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyze event descriptions and three main themes emerged including target of the event, perpetrator and setting. Significant differences were found for target and perpetrator based upon the gender of the participant. There were also significant differences in the distribution of the type of event (gender role stereotypes, sexual objectification or demeaning events) based on the setting and target.

Objectification theory and our understanding of indoor tanning.

Abstract: Media depictions of tanned individuals as healthy and attractive help to establish sociocultural beliefs about appearance,1,2 and popular television programs glamorize indoor tanning.3 Our understanding of media influences in the persistence of tanning behavior may be informed by examining how media influences relate to disordered eating, which, like tanning, can be viewed as an attempt to exert control over one’s physical appearance. According to objectification theory,4 cultural and media-driven sexual objectification of women, including the portrayal of an ideal feminine body image (eg, thin, toned, bronzed appearance), can socialize women to internalize these ideals and begin to view themselves as objects to be looked at and evaluated. Women may critically compare themselves to these ideal images and find themselves wanting. Feelings of shame often emerge when women realize they do not look like the feminine ideal. These feelings motivate young women to engage in appearance control behaviors in an attempt to look more like the ideal. To our knowledge, this research will be the first to test if the body objectification framework can be applied to indoor tanning.

Womanhood 'under terror' : an investigation into the embodied experience of Jewish-Israeli women living in a protracted conflict zone

Abstract: This thesis constructs femininity within secular Jewish-Israeli socio-culture and considers the influence of 'living under terror' on models of womanhood within this culture. It is my contention that as a Western affiliated culture, Jewish-Israeli mainstream culture tends to deploy its women to buffer the existential anxiety endured by the whole society. As in other preservations of complex power hierarchies this is done through perpetuating certain models of womanhood within mainstream discourse, endowing them with the aura of naturalness. In this thesis I further argue that the global discourse on terrorism has added a significant layer to these models within the last decade. Furthermore, by juxtaposing Terror Management theory and Objectification theory, I show how sexual objectification of women, perceived as a Western value, heightens the over-sexualisation of secular Jewish-Israeli women.

ORIGINAL ARTICLE Gender stereotypes and normative heterosexuality in matrimonial ads from globalizing India

Abstract: Matrimonial ads serve as unobtrusive sites to observe the construction and perpetuation of normative heterosexuality through socio-cultural discourses. The current study focuses on gendered spousal expectations and sex role preferences in 1065 matrimonial ads from two popular newspapers in India. Gender differences in ad type, financial stability, physical attractiveness, fairness, slimness, personality traits, and occupational preferences were examined. Results found support for social exchange of men’s financial stability for women’s physical attractiveness, gender polarization in ideal spousal occupations, and the relative fluidity in gender identities of women as compared to men. A strong preference for fair and slim women was observed. Implications for sexual objectification of women and changing gender roles in globalizing India are discussed.

Gender stereotypes and normative heterosexuality in matrimonial ads from globalizing India

Abstract: Matrimonial ads serve as unobtrusive sites to observe the construction and perpetuation of normative heterosexuality through socio-cultural discourses. The current study focuses on gendered spousal expectations and sex role preferences in 1065 matrimonial ads from two popular newspapers in India. Gender differences in ad type, financial stability, physical attractiveness, fairness, slimness, personality traits, and occupational preferences were examined. Results found support for social exchange of men's financial stability for women's physical attractiveness, gender polarization in ideal spousal occupations, and the relative fluidity in gender identities of women as compared to men. A strong preference for fair and slim women was observed. Implications for sexual objectification of women and changing gender roles in globalizing India are discussed.

Young people’s perceptions and experiences of their physical bodies

Abstract: Research has consistently revealed gender differences in physical self-concept and engagement in physical activity, with results typically favouring boys. Despite strong evidence to suggest that socialisation results in physical activity taking on different meanings and experiences for girls and boys, these different meanings have rarely been considered in interventions targeting youth physical inactivity. Studies of self-objectification have shown that - women, particularly adolescent girls, experience the negative impact of self-objectification (e.g., disordered eating, depression and decreased body satisfaction) more than males, although males are increasingly being subject to sexual objectification in society. Developmental differences in measures of physical self-concept have been less clear than gendered differences but have major implications for when interventions targeting physical inactivity and body image should be initiated.

Sexual objectification and its consequences on body image and social interaction

Abstract: Sexual Objectification and Its Consequences on Body Image and Social Interaction. (August 2006) Analesa N. Clarke, B.A., Pennsylvania State University Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Marisol Perez The current study examined the psychological consequences of trait and state self objectification. This study had three main objectives: to examine the relation between trait self objectification and various eating pathologies; to examine the degree of state self objectification (induced by three different conditions) and the impact of condition on affect and sense of self; and finally, to examine the effect of condition on interactions with the opposite sex. The pilot study was used to select thin, thin sexually objectifying and average/plus size non-sexually objectifying images. Using a quasi-experimental research design with an elaborate cover story, the main study exposed one hundred seventy women to one of three conditions (thin non sexually objectifying, thin sexually objectifying or plus size non-sexually objectifying images) and measured negative affect and body image. Following viewing images, participants interacted with a male confederate for five minutes and their reported comfort level and flirting with the confederate were assessed. Results indicated that trait self objectification was associated with disordered eating symptomatology. However, the manipulation check revealed that the experimental condition did not produce varying degrees of sexual objectification. Nonetheless, results indicate an effect of condition on body dissatisfaction, in which

Women and Work: Supporting Female Colleagues in Psychology

Abstract: In 2007, the most recent year for which data are available, women comprised 64.4 percent of the 185,000 psychologists nationwide. Sixty-six percent of mental health counselors and a striking 82 percent of social workers were also women (United States Department of Labor, 2008). Despite women's strong presence in the social sciences and mental health fields, women still face unique challenges as they advance through their career. For instance, APA's study of salaries in psychology showed that in 2007, women earned less than men, with the disparities becoming more pronounced with more years of work experience (American Psychological Association Center for Workforce Studies, 2009). Sexual harassment and sexism are still pervasive in many work places, as well as the often-overlooked tensions of balancing multiple roles for working mothers (Oates, Hall, Anderson & Willingham, 2008). Many of the problems women face, as well as their solutions to these problems, are closely intertwined with their religious faith (Hall, Anderson & Willingham, 2004; Hall, Christerson & Cunningham, 2009). This article seeks to identify common issues faced by Christian women working in psychology-related fields, as well as highlight avenues for supporting these women in the workplace. To this end, we will first review some issues faced by working women in general, and then discuss those issues that pertain more specifically to working mothers. Issues Facing Working Women Women who work face certain unique challenges, including encounters with sexism, as well as structural obstacles in the workplace (such as discriminatory policies), which can serve to place them at a disadvantage. These negative encounters and structural obstacles may take the form of small, almost imperceptible slights which, when considered individually, do not amount to much; in other words, they are molehills. But molehills can accumulate over time to create mountains in the form of unsupportive or even hostile environments for women. Valian (1998) refers to this phenomenon as the accumulation of disadvantage, and makes the case that this is an important and frequently overlooked issue in the workplace. We turn now to the specific negative experiences women face in the workplace. Gender discrimination. Gender discrimination occurs whenever a person or persons are put at a disadvantage compared to other groups because of their gender. Gender discrimination includes many forms of disadvantageous treatment, including discriminatory decisions (such as hiring or firing), sexual and gender harassment. Sexual harassment is "the sexualization of a work relationship" (Settles, Cortina, Malley, & Stewart, 2006), and includes a range of behaviors including sexual assault, sexual coercion and unwanted sexual attention. Elena works as a therapist in a prison setting. Although she finds her work meaningful, she sometimes dreads going to work because of the catcalls and sexualized comments directed at her by the inmates. Although she usually wears her long hair in a bun, Elena once wore it down, as she was going directly to a social event after work. One of her colleagues, a therapist, told her that she was "asking for" sexual attention by wearing her hair down. Gender harassment, on the other hand, conveys degrading and sexist attitudes without the intention of eliciting sexual cooperation with the perpetrator. In a qualitative study on gender harassment, Swim, Hyers, Cohen and Ferguson (2001) concluded that it is composed of three unique types of incidents: demeaning and derogatory comments and behaviors, sexual objectification, and traditional gender role prejudice and stereotyping. For example, stereotypes may lead to devaluing or ignoring the contributions of women. Jane is one of only two women on the board of an organization that provides psychological services to the community. At a board meeting, she suggests an amendment to a motion, but her comment is ignored. …

Death to 'Child Erotica'

Abstract: The world of child sexual exploitation is a complex one including many crimes. Research and caselaw indicate that child pornography often is found intertwined with other sexual material demonstrating a sexual interest in children. Such material includes, but is not limited to, sexualized pictures of nude or semi-nude children; surreptitiously recorded videos of children focusing on their breasts or genitals; writings on the most successful methods of facilitating child molestation, etc. That child pornography producers and collectors can often possess some such material is perhaps of no surprise. That criminal courts are referring to such material with the artistic term of child erotica, suggesting validation, is problematic. Its use must cease. Within the last decade there has been a significant international movement to replace the term child pornography with the label child abuse images. This change is motivated by a realization that the latter term more clearly identifies the content of the material, and avoids the suggestion that such victimization is analogous to possessing adult pornography. This paper proposes a second step to this movement, removing from our language the term child erotica and replacing it with descriptive norms or, when labels are necessary, the more precise terms of child exploitation images and child exploitation paraphernalia. Just as the term child pornography has been replaced in research and legal circles, the use of the term child erotica should be reclaimed and replaced. The term is troubling for three main reasons. First, linking the words child and erotica is misleading. Using an artistic label incorrectly suggests it references a genre of art. Second, it validates the material to which it refers. Such a term contributes to the social phenomenon known as the normalization of the sexual objectification of children, as it suggests there are circumstances when the sexual objectification of children by adults is appropriate and socially valued. Third, that the misnomer is emerging in legal opinions compounds the problem. The term has been improperly incorporated by the criminal courts. Divorced from its roots in art and literature, it claims to reference anything, no matter if sexually exploitive or truly artistic, that fails to meet the legal definition of child pornography or child abuse images. When courts are reviewing evidence, they need precise labels to most effectively make determinations. By grouping all legal material together under one inaccurate label: child erotica, courts can miss the relevance of some of the evidence, thereby risking improper outcomes. This paper traces the roots of the term as originally intended in the artistic and social science realms. It then analyzes this corrupted use of the term in legal opinions, demonstrating the potential shortfalls of the current misuse. The paper then proposes that in criminal courts a descriptive norm replace this categorical norm when referencing material that is considered sexually exploitive of children, although not child abuse images per se. First Amendment concerns arise whenever one discusses the use of protected speech. The paper discusses these concerns. Within that analysis it eliminates many such concerns by (a) focusing on material unrelated to artistic genres and (b) acknowledging the current legality of much of the material. The paper calls for no controls of speech, but rather a more precise labeling which leads to more accurate legal analysis of evidence in child exploitation cases. Language matters. Labels matter. Socially, language and labels matter because they can reflect cultural norms and values. In criminal litigation, labels matter because inaccurate labels can contribute to inaccurate assessment of evidence which can cause inaccurate results. At times, terms are so inaccurate and misleading, they become damaging. Child erotica is such a term and it must be replaced.