Showing papers on "Strategic planning published in 1970"

Managing for Value: Developing a Performance Measurement System Integrating Economic Value Added and the Balanced Scorecard in Strategic Planning

Abstract: Economic value added (EVA) systems and the balanced scorecard (BSC) have generated a tremendous interest in corporate America recently as approaches to performance management. Implementation of these methodologies has not proven to be easy. This paper introduces the analytical hierarchy process and shows how this methodology addresses the limitations ore VA and BSC by integrating them into one comprehensive system. A case study is used to illustrate this methodology. Introduction Managing for value has become the mantra of today's executives as the reality of today's competitive environments force businesses to focus on improving profitability. Firms, both large and small, are implementing value-based measures using measures such as Economic Value Added (EVA). All too often, however, these initiatives are interpreted merely as an advance in metrics and measurement and not a tool for strategy development. This narrow interpretation and use suggests little fundamental change in the behavior of the many people responsible for the decisions and actions that create long-term value and has brought only mediocre results to some firms. To improve the implementation of value based management (VBM), firms need to move beyond narrow metrics to the utilization of EVA as a strategic decision tool. It must be linked to broad process reforms including the identification of value drivers, the integration of budgeting with strategic planning, and development of a comprehensive performance measurement system. This is the objective of our paper. We focus on the development of a complementary system of managerial metrics linking the EVA system to the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) using analytical hierarchy processing (AHP). The importance of managing for value is discussed and potential limitations identified. The Balanced Scorecard as a vehicle for identifying value drivers and drilling down into the operations of the firm is presented. Then, these two complementary frameworks are combined, using the AHP methodology, to develop a comprehensive measurement system for assessing the overall performance of the organization. A case study is used to illustrate this methodology. Economic Value Added A paramount objective of management should be the creation of value for the firm. Thus, it is essential in strategic planning to manage the firm's resources with an objective of increasing the firm's market value (Hawawini and Viallet 2002: Eccles and Pyburn 1992). From an EVA perspective, the ultimate success of a firm is not measured only by its capacity to grow its sales, produce profits, or generate cash from its operations, but whether the firm's activities are creating value for its owners (Ehrbar 1998). According to economic theory, a firm is creating value if the net present value of all its investments is positive. Quite simply, EVA is a measure that enables managers to see whether they are earning an appropriate return on the capital under their control. It is a measure of profit less the cost of capital employed (EVA calculations are provided in Exhibit 1) and is the one measure that properly accounts for all the complex trade-offs, often between the income statement and balance sheet, in creating value (Pettit 2000). The EVA metric is not only a measure of financial performance but should serve as the centerpiece of a strategy development and implementation process. Putting value based management into practice, however, has been found to be more complicated than some of its proponents suggest. Haspeslagh, Nada and Boulos (2001) found a number of characteristics associated with the successful implementation of value based management (VBM). Successful VBM companies keep the technical accounting aspects of EVA simple, making very few changes to their accounting practices. They invest time and effort in identifying and assessing the operational factors, or value drivers, that have the greatest influence on the creation of economic profit. …

A Framework for Developing an Effective Mission Statement

Abstract: Introduction An increasing number of profit and nonprofit organizations across America are incorporating strategic management activities into their overall operations. Strategic management can be defined as the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of actions that will enable a firm to achieve its objectives. The strategic management process is based on the belief that a firm should continually monitor key internal and external events and trends; firms should seek to pursue strategies that capitalize on internal strengths, take advantage of external opportunities, improve internal weaknesses, and minimize the effect of external threats. It is widely acknowledged today that the rate, magnitude, and complexity of changes that impact organizations are accelerating. These changes are creating a different type of consumer, different types of products and services, and consequently a need for different strategies. Increased competitiveness worldwide, coupled with rapid social, technological, and economic changes, are major reasons why the strategic management process is being adopted by more and more firms. In a recent review of strategic management models, the mission statement was noted as being an essential first step in the strategic management process (David, 1984; Staples & Black, 1984). A mission statement can be defined as an enduring document of purpose that distinguishes one business from other firms of its type (Pearce, 1982). A mission statement is a declaration of an organization's business or "reason for being." A clear statement of a company's mission is essential to effectively establishing objectives, formulating strategies, setting goals, devising policies, allocating resources, and motivating employees. A mission statement is thus an integral component of the strategic management process. As evidenced in the following quotation from Peter Drucker's classic book entitled Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, and Practices, a good mission statement makes strategy formulation, strategy implementation, and strategy evaluation much easier. Unless the basic concepts on which a business has been built are visible, clearly understood, and explicitly expressed, an organization is at the mercy of events. Not understanding what it is, what it represents, and what its basic concepts, values, policies, and beliefs are, a business cannot rationally change itself. Only a clear definition of the mission and purpose of the business makes possible clear and realistic business objectives. The business mission is the foundation for priorities, strategies, plans, and work assignments. It is the starting point for the design of managerial jobs and, above all, for the design of managerial structures. Structure follows strategy. Strategy determines what the key activities are in a given business. And strategy requires knowing "what our business is and what it should be." (Drucker, p. 75). The importance of a mission statement to effective strategic management is well supported in the management literature (Staples & Black, 1984). A mission statement may be the most visible and public part of a strategic plan. As such, steps should be taken to insure that the statement includes all of the essential components and attributes. In addition, a company mission should be evaluated to insure that it communicates clearly the desired feelings that will guide and motivate employees to action. The purpose of this article is to present a practical framework for developing an effective mission statement. A developmental model is presented and exemplified through application to actual organizations. The proposed mission statement developmental framework is presented in Figure 1, and includes the following four stages: Orientation, Component Analysis, Communication Analysis, and Applicability Analysis. Figure 1 Steps in the Development of an Effective Mission Statement (MS) Orientation * Create a Strategic Planning Task Force * Review the Strategic Planning Process * Review Mission Statement Significance in Strategic Planning * Review MS development process Component Analysis * Identify desired components * Draft MS including derived components Communication Analysis Denotative Analysis (Readability) * Write clear and concise * Compute Fog Index * Rewrite if necessary Connotative Analysis * Identify connotative feelings desired from reading MS * Administer Questionnaire to users (readers) * Rewrite if necessary Applicability Analysis * Identify likely situations where MS might be applied--develop case * Have users evaluate case based on Mission Statement * Determine if Mission Statement can be applied A strategic planning task force is an appropriate group to do the initial development of an organization's mission statement. …

The Strategic Planning Process and Performance Relationship: Does Culture Matter?

Abstract: Given the growth of multinationals, it is important that managers learn whether strategic planning enhances firm performance in cross-cultural situations. Using an international sample of firms, this study found that the general planning-performance model is relevant across the cultures sampled. While there appears to be little direct relationship between culture and planning, culture did moderate the planning-performance relationship. Furthermore, specific cultural values were found to account for some of the cross-cultural differences in the planning-performance relationship. Implications for management and future research are discussed. Introduction Concerns of increased international competition abound not only in the U.S. but also in Europe with the further expansion of the European Union and in Asia and Latin America with increased economic integration (Rugman, 2003) in those regions. Theorists (Goll & Rasheed, 1997; Brews & Hunt, 1999) have argued that firms should respond to environmental changes, such as increased competition, by engaging in more systematic strategic planning to anticipate and respond to changing events. There is evidence that U.S. firms have responded to greater environmental uncertainty and complexity with more extensive planning (Javidan, 1984; Kukalis, 1989). Furthermore, it appears that formal strategic planning enhances firm performance although the relationship is not unequivocal (Boyd, 1991; Capon, Farley & Hulbert, 1994; Miller & Cardinal, 1994). It is worth noting that, as firms in other regions of the world are confronting increasingly volatile environments, there is a need to extend planning research to firms representing a diversity of national and cultural settings (Brock, Barry & Thomas, 2000). Such research will help ensure that current prescriptions concerning the use of planning have external validity in a variety of locales. Thus, the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between strategic planning and firm performance among a group of firms representing different cultural regions. Strategic Planning Processes Strategic management seeks to align the firm's activities with its external environment. At the heart of this management approach is the strategic planning system. As firms face increased environmental change (e.g., more globalization) theorists (Grant, 2003) argue that firms benefit from strategic planning. For over thirty years, a plethora of studies have examined formal long range or strategic planning. Many of these studies have found that firms that plan possess different characteristics than non-planners. In particular, many studies have sought to examine the relationship between planning and firm performance (Boyd, 1991). A review of much of the literature suggests that strategic planning can be described along two broad dimensions, planning content or ends and planning processes or means (Boyd, 1991 ; Brews & Hunt, 1999; Miller & Cardinal, 1994; Ramanujan & Venkatraman, 1987). Planning content refers to the ends of the planning process such as: goals, mission statements, environmental information programs (Veliyath & Shortell, 1993), and internal resources. Much of this content helps distinguish strategic planning from that which is purely operational planning. Planning processes focus on the means or methods by which the planning process is carried out. Characteristics such as commitment, system maturity, comprehensiveness, time horizon, and importance are typical examples of such system or process characteristics (Capon, Farley & Hulbert, 1994; Ramanujam & Venkatraman, 1987; Rhyne, 1986). This study focuses on planning processes or system characteristics because these processes have been examined far more in the literature (Boyd, 1991; Miller & Cardinal, 1994) on planning and performance. This makes it easier to compare this study to the stream of literature that has preceded it. …

The Engagement of Employees In The Strategy Process and Firm Performance: The Role of Strategic Goals and Environment

Abstract: Despite the call to engage employees in strategy making processes, empirical evidence that ties this engagement to financial performance has not been forthcoming. This study fills this gap by investigating whether involving employees in the strategy making process leads to a higher achievement of strategic goals and subsequently increased financial performance. Our findings suggest that the link between strategy making processes and financial performance may be underestimated unless strategic goals are included as a mediator. We also find environmental dynamism moderates the relationships we investigate. Under conditions of low dynamism, there is a stronger relationship between the engagement of employees and strategic goals related to innovation than under conditions of high dynamism. Conversely, strategic goals related to quality have a stronger relationship with engagement of employees under conditions of high dynamism when compared to conditions of low dynamism. ********** The importance of involving employees throughout an organization in the strategy making process has been recognized by traditional academic researchers (e.g. Burgelman, 1991; Floyd & Wooldridge, 2000; Hart, 1992), as well as consultants and practitioners (e.g. Hamel & Prahalad, 1994; Kaplan & Norton, 1996). One rationale behind the use of multi-level strategy processes is to provide employees with a better understanding of the company's strategy and build a stronger commitment to achieving the goals in the implementation of the strategy (Floyd & Wooldridge, 2000; Hamel & Prahalad, 1994; Kaplan & Norton, 1996). A company's strategy can also be facilitated by employee involvement because knowledge and information relevant to strategy making is dispersed throughout the organization (Miller & Monge, 1986). Cognitive model theorists (Anthony, 1978; Frost, Wakely & Ruh, 1974) propose that when employees have more complete knowledge about their jobs and operations they can provide better information. Involvement in strategy making also allows employees to know more about implementation of decisions. For example, ideas that support new innovations often come from those employees that are in direct contact with the customer (Von Hippel, 1988). In order for innovation to be a source of competitive advantage for a company, there must be organizational processes that allow these ideas to be brought forward and integrated into the activities of the company (Burgelman, 1983). Despite the call for more investigations into the relationship between strategy making process and firm performance (Chakravarthy & Doz, 1992; Huff & Reger, 1987), there has been relatively little empirical research on this link, especially when strategy making processes involve multiple levels of the organization (Floyd & Wooldridge, 2000; Rajagopalan, Rasheed, & Datta, 1993). While the intensity and use of employee involvement practices is on the increase, the strategic impact of such practices has not been adequately investigated. This may be because most studies focus on narrow definitions of employee involvement (Ledford & Lawler, 1994). Our study uses a broad definition of employee involvement in strategy process to include information sharing, decision making, experimentation, understanding of company goals, and iterative strategy making that involves multiple levels of the organization. A broad definition captures the variety of involvement ranging from information sharing to actual decision making. We suggest that aspects of such involvement should relate to achievement of strategic goals. The two types of strategic goals tested in this study are quality and innovation. It is suggested that both require employee involvement and empowerment to make decisions (Lawler, Mohrman, & Ledford, 1995; Burgelman, 1991). In addition, these goals often create a tension between striving to have organizational processes that ensure consistent quality and organizational processes that facilitate creativity and innovation (Brown & Eisenhardt, 1998; Jelinek & Schoonhoven, 1990; Miron, Erez, & Naveh, 2004). …

Strategic Management: Is It an Academic Discipline?

Abstract: This paper seeks to address the question of whether strategic management is an academic discipline, as critics have argued it is not. We offer a synthesized definition of strategic management and assess whether strategic management is an academic discipline by utilizing the framework established by Biglan (1973). This framework requires disciplines to have a unifying paradigm(s) as well as practical application of its theories. After analysis, we conclude that strategic management meets Biglan's (1973) requirements and should be considered an academic discipline. In closing, we consider the future direction of strategic management research and new research methods. Introduction The field of strategic management is relatively young compared to other academic disciplines (e.g. economics, chemistry, law, etc.) and has been criticized by scholars who question its legitimacy and relevance. Strategic management is criticized for failing to have a concise, formal definition, lacking its own unique theories, and being a sub-field of other disciplines (Mockler, 1995; McGrath, 2007; Rumelt, Schendel, & Teece, 1991). Additionally, the field is criticized for focusing too heavily on theory and lacking practical application for managers, for focusing too heavily on practical application and not on theory, and even for being built upon a loose set of ideas with no adequate structure (Barney, 2002; Mahoney & McGahan, 2007; McGrath, 2007). In all, some scholars do not consider strategic management to be a viable academic discipline. Other scholars have a different perspective. Additional assessments of strategic management indicate the existence of a demanding, complex, and refined discipline, continued growth, and a strong theoretical base with substantial empirical research (Bettis, 1991; Coyne & Subramaniam, 1996; Hoskisson, Hitt, Wan, & Yiu, 1999). These contradictory statements cast an aura of uncertainty on the state of strategic management as an academic discipline. While the aforementioned criticisms may have some level of validity, claims alone do not disqualify strategic management as a discipline. The claims merely illustrate that the field may be moving in the wrong direction or that weaknesses exist that need to be addressed. Our intention is not to negate each criticism of strategic management but instead to identify the current status of the field, utilize a framework to determine if it is a discipline, and highlight areas of concern related to its future direction. The question of whether strategic management is an academic discipline may at first seem as though its answer is an obvious, foregone conclusion; however it is important that we answer this question using the same scientific methods we would for any research topic. Additionally, and perhaps more importantly, we should examine whether recent research in the field has taken strategic management too far away from its roots or if this diverse research stream simply represents the natural maturation of an academic field. Furthermore, the advantages and implications of strategic management being classified as a discipline are also worthy of consideration. According to Hambrick, if strategic management is not an academic discipline, "our purpose as a field, the study of the roles of and responsibilities of general managers, will cease to have a place on the academic landscape" (2004, p. 91). If strategic management is found to not be accurately classified as an academic discipline, then our theoretical and practical contributions to management as a whole may be considered inconsequential, thus encouraging strategic management scholars to focus their efforts toward another, more stable field (Barney, 2002). At the heart of this question is the concept of legitimacy. According to institutional theory, organizations often develop symbolic systems, artifacts, and routines not for operational efficiencies, but instead for the sake of being considered legitimate (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Scott, 2001). …

The Measurement of Strategic Orientation and Its Efficacy in Predicting Financial Performance

Abstract: For decades, the strategic management literature has recognized strategic orientation as an important cultural attribute in the investigation of the link between organizational culture and firm performance. Using three studies, we develop a survey measure of strategic orientation that is unidimensional, reliable, and predictive of financial performance. Our final study uses a sample of 779 respondents from 20 companies and empirically demonstrates a positive relationship between strategic orientation and firm performance. Our results support the notion that managers should both encourage and support behaviors and execute actions that are consistent with our measure of strategic orientation to create a coherent strategic approach, resulting in improved financial performance. Introduction Over the past several decades, organizational researchers have yielded a description of organizational culture that is consistent across both macro- and micro-level domains (cf. Denison & Mishra, 1995; Lee & Yu, 2004; Schein, 1985; Siehl & Martin, 1988; Wallach, 1983). At times, likened to the firm's very identity, culture is a complex set of shared values, beliefs, philosophies, and symbols that define the way in which a firm conducts its business (Barney, 1986; Denison, 1984; Goll & Sambharya, 1995; Jones, Jimmieson, & Griffith, 2005; Michalisin, Kline, & Smith, 2000; Sorensen, 2002). Ultimately this shared set of values and beliefs is transmitted through behaviors and actions of employees within an organization (Wilkins & Ouchi, 1983; Schein, 1985), thus leading to different organizational outcomes (Lee & Yu, 2004). Despite the potential effects and significance of organizational culture, the link between corporate culture and firm-level performance is underdeveloped both theoretically and empirically (Reichers & Schneider, 1990; Sackman, 2010). In the strategy literature, researchers have used multiple variables to study the culture-performance relationship, including strategic orientation. Strategic orientation has been defined as the inclination of a firm to focus on strategic direction and proper strategic fit to ensure superior firm performance (Barney, 1986; Gatignon & Xuereb, 1997; Pleshko & Nickerson 2008). It has also been conceptualized as a continuous and iterative process that must focus on the different effects of rational, economic, political, and subjective aspects of strategic change on competitive performance (Porter, 1980; Whipp, Rosenfeld, & Pettigrew, 1989; Zhou, Gao, & Zhou, 2005). A firm's strategic orientation is important in the examination of its culture's impact on performance, as this cultural attribute (and cultural phenomena in general) indicates where its employees focus their time, energy, and resources in decision-making (Cahlik, Howard, & Godkin, 1999; Jones, Jimmieson, & Griffiths, 2005; Schein, 1983; Trevino, 1986). Thus, with regard to strategic orientation, employees share values and execute actions toward maintaining a coherent strategic approach given broad environmental factors; this cognitive and behavioral attention influences aspects of organizational performance. Strategic Orientation Research A review of the research attempting to operationalize strategic orientation can be seen in Table 1. These studies have identified almost 20 attributes to measure strategic orientation. While the Miles and Snow (1978) typology is the most common approach, it only makes up a small percentage of studies. As mentioned above, strategic orientation has been defined as the inclination of a firm to focus upon strategic direction and proper strategic fit to ensure superior firm performance (Barney, 1986; Gatignon & Xuereb, 1997; Porter, 1985). Studies have conceptualized strategic orientation utilizing various approaches including classifying firms into typologies such as the Miles and Snow (1978) archetype (Pleshko & Nickerson, 2008) or identifying cultural attributes (Venkatraman, 1989). …

Participative Management's Influence On Effective Strategic Diffusion

Abstract: Recent research has highlighted the importance of middle and lower level managers in strategy formulation in ensuring that the strategy effectively "diffuses" throughout the organization. However, the question remains as to whether prevailing participative management styles in an organization can enhance this process. The present study suggests that the propensity of managers to employ participative management styles was found to positively influence the degree to which strategies were perceived as part of the organization. Introduction Strategic diffusion refers to the degree to which a strategy is effectively implemented and becomes an accepted part of the organization. Whereas much of the current research is based on the notion that strategy should "fit" with a variety of organizational and environmental constructs in order to lead to superior performance (e.g., Barney, 1986; Brouthers & Arens, 1999; Hamilton & Shergill, 1992; Neilsen, 1992; Zajac, Kraatz, & Bresser, 2000), researchers have not fully considered behavioral factors in the organization that influence strategic diffusion. This paper considers whether or not the prevailing participative management styles in an organization influence top management's ability to "diffuse" the strategy throughout the organization. Strategic Diffusion Three dimensions of strategic diffusion--involvement, understanding, and commitment--have been elaborated in the literature (Parnell & Crandall, 1995). The first dimension--involvement--concerns the degree to which middle and lower level managers were involved in the strategy-making process. Involvement can encompass numerous processes and techniques as long as it reflects top management's active consultation with other managers in the organization. Researchers have consistently found that individuals tend to work harder at attaining a goal when they were involved in setting it (Locke, Latham & Erez, 1988; Roberson, Moye, & Locke, 1999). Since strategy formulation encompasses some degree of implicit or explicit goal setting, greater involvement in formulation enhances efforts at implementation. (1) Although the concept of non-conceptual management involvement in strategy is not a recent phenomenon, the last decade has produced evidence to suggest that strategy formulation and implementation can reflect a diverse array of top and middle management inputs (Antonio. 1999; Barney, 1986: Burgelman, 1983; Currie, 1999; Thakur, 1998). Mintzberg and Waters' (1985) notion of deliberate and emergent strategies acknowledges the significant role of top and middle managers in the strategic management process. Paralleling the work of Burgelman (1983) and Hiam (1993), Nichol (1992) observed that top management simply cannot effectively develop a strategy and plan for its implementation without assistance from middle managers. Wooldridge and Floyd (1990) conducted the most comprehensive empirical analysis of middle management strategic involvement. Not only did they find that middle management involvement in strategy formulation improved performance, they also noted that most organizations in the sample deliberately involved middle managers in the process. Although their study reflects a culmination of thought acknowledging involvement beyond the top manager and even the top management team (for example, see Barker & Patterson, 1996; Schilit. 1987), most published studies utilizing perceptual data continued to rely solely on the perceptions of the top manager (Goll & Johnson, 1996). Wessel (1993) identified numerous individual barriers to effective implementation associated with management involvement, including conflicting managerial priorities, a top-down management approach (i.e., lack of non-conceptual manager involvement in strategy formulation), and poor communication. Others have focused on the need for "selling" the strategy to non-conceptual managers (Coulson-Thomas, 1992; Hambrick & Cannella, 1989), but complete strategy permeation also may suggest non-conceptual manager involvement at the front end. …

Nominal group techniques for involving clients and resource experts in program planning.

Abstract: A characteristic concern of contemporary administrators is the need to find appropriate methods of involving clients and resource experts in planning for new programs. This concern permeates educat...

Technological Forecasting In The Decision Process

Abstract: Technological forecasting, as distinct from general forecasting activity, has been described as “the probabilistic assessment, on a relatively high confidence level, of future technology transfer.”...

An Interpretive Perspective on the Role of Strategic Control in Triggering Strategic Change

Abstract: Rapidly changing environments press organizations to respond in an appropriate and timely fashion. Strategic control plays an important role in this adaptation process through its identification and interpretation of "change triggers"--critical events in the external environment that mandate an organization's response. We argue that giving more prominent place to data interpretation in the strategic control process facilitates the identification of factors that trigger change. We build a conceptual model around a three-step process of scanning/monitoring, data interpretation, and response combined with three different levels of strategic control (strategic surveillance, premise monitoring, and implementation control). The model assists managers by highlighting the factors that can cause Type II errors (not changing when change is required) and provides researchers with directions f or future inquiry. Introduction Business leaders face an unprecedented level of market turmoil and dynamism. The globalization of markets, the liberalization of the former East-bloc economies, the increasing diversity of the workforce, and the rising ubiquity of the Internet are only a few of the factors driving rapid change. Such changes mandate responses on the part of individual businesses but this begs several questions of managers: do we need to respond, when should we respond, and what should be the nature of our response? While managers have faced similar questions in the past, there is growing agreement that the pace of change has quickened: managers have less time to respond to change. Change triggers are events in the external environment of such importance and magnitude that they mandate an organization's response (Napster had no choice but to respond to court rulings that it had violated copyright protection). These change triggers play an important role in strategic control. Rajagopalan and Spreitzer (1997) identified triggering strategic change as a "key unresolved issue" in the academic literature (p. 72), and called for more research into this important area. Strategic changes are adjustments an organization makes to better align itself with its environment, improving the likelihood of successful strategy implementation. One reason triggering change remains unresolved is that the literature cited by these authors has generally not employed frameworks or concepts from research on strategic control. The strategic control literature has more directly addressed this issue of triggering change (Muralidharan, 1997; Picken & Dess, 1997; Preble, 1992). For example, Schreyogg and Steinmann (1987) identified three different ways in which the need for strategic changes can be identified: tracking performance indicators: challenging the validity of crucial assumptions underlying a particular strategy; and identifying emerging issues through macro-environmental scanning. We assert that the value of strategic control research in addressing the triggering of change can be enhanced by more fully integrating data interpretation into models of strategic control. While Rajagopalan and Spreitzer (1997) incorporated managerial cognition and data interpretation into their multi-lens framework of strategic change, these concepts have generally been overlooked in strategic control studies (Fiegener, 1994, 1997; and Lorange, et al., 1986 are notable exceptions). Currently, no research has systematically applied cognitive and interpretive concepts to strategic control, nor has it attempted to present strategic control as essentially a data interpretation activity. We, therefore, consider strategic control from an interpretation perspective and then apply this interpretive framework to the issue of the timely triggering of strategic change. Model of the Strategic Control Process Strategic control involves the monitoring and evaluation of plans, activities, and results with a view toward future action (Goold & Quinn, 1990; Preble. …

La responsabilidad social como modelo de gestión empresarial

Abstract: Social Business Responsibility (SBR) is a voluntary commitment assumed by the company to contribute social sustainable development; this responsibility must be conceived from a systematic approach, this is an integrating instrument which considers many elements and relations on the organization structure to identify needs, determine strategies, select, apply and assess the results gotten, which generates the appropriate management model that permits the company to add, as part of its strategic planning, some tools to meet necessities from stakeholders, interested groups and society; elements that must be involved in the process of making institutional decisions, such actions makes the organization reach excellence.

Naval Operations Plans between Germany and the United States of America 1898-1913 A Study of Strategic Planning in the Age of Imperialism

Abstract: In recent years historians on both sides of the Atlantic have been most eager to analyse the effect, both on internal and external affairs, of the creation of a large German battle fleet by the Imperial Naval Office (»Reidismarineamt«). A number of scholars has gone one step further and investigated the actual tasks assigned to this force by the Admiralty Staff (»Admiralstab«). However, the existence of both German and American naval plans against eadi other has received little or no attention from historians of German-American relations. When sudi plans are mentioned, confusion, lack of precise data, and heated sentiments all too often preclude sober discussion. After World War I, William II denied to his blood relative George Sylvester Viereck the existence of any plans against the United States. »Never was any plan for military or naval action against the United States prepared or even contemplated.« The Kaiser's memory had obviously faded. The first discussion of sudi German naval plans appeared in two articles by the German-American scholar Alfred Vagts in the »Political Science Quarterly« (1939 and 1940). In the 1930's, during a visit to the Foreign Office in the Wilhelmstraße, Vagts examined copies of reports by the German naval attaché in Washington, Kapitänleutnant Hubert v. Rebeur-Pasdiwitz, to the State Secretary of the Naval Office, Kontreadmiral Alfred v. Tirpitz. In 1958 Walther Hubatsch revealed an »Immediatvortrag« of February 26, 1900, by the Chief of the Admiralty Staff, Vizeadmiral Otto v. Diederidis, that recommended an attack on the coast of New England in the event of war between Germany and the United States. Hubatsdi dismissed the plan as emblematic of »der in alien Admiralstäben üblichen routinemäßigen Überlegungen . . . Sie [the study] ist niemals zu einem Operationsplan ausgereift, sondern lediglich im März 1899 als Denkschrift aufgesetzt, die in ihrer Art ein Unikum geblieben sein dürfte.« The American plan likewise has received little mention. It is best discussed in an unpublished Yale University dissertation of 1954 written by Warner Roller Sdiilling. Schilling's work was limited because he lacked information concerning the German

Masterplan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK) Kantor Pemerintah Desa

Abstract: The village is the smallest part of the system of administrative governance in Indonesia,which is required to keep abreast of technological developments and improve its ability tomanage the administrative data the village population. Currently several villages in southernKalimantan, there are many uses conventional technologies in system administrationservices village population. It is very possible impact to village officials and villagers, wherefrequent human error, as well as a waste of time and cost. Therefore, it needs a system thatleads to e-Government to address any problems that occur.In the implementation of e-Government, the Government needed some kind of strategicplanning that is often referred to as the Master Plan for ICT as a base village government inimplementing Information Technology and communication. Preparation of Master Plan ICTto the village administration office is expected to be a guide or reference for the villagegovernment in determining policies, strategic plans, work programs of ICT, ICT developmentunit manager, user management, network infrastructure development, ICT infrastructure,and information systems management guidelinesThe preparation of the ICT master plan begins with identifying the current condition ofthe village so that it can be seen readiness of the village at the time of the master plan willbe applied, and then determine a strategic plan in ICT include information technologyinfrastructure, and management ICT

The Effectiveness of Strategy in Non-Profit Organizations: An Exploratory Study of Academic Institutions

Abstract: Prior research has been relatively withdrawn to study the strategic management process in non-profit organizations, and ignored differences in strategic planning in academic institutions. In contrast, this paper argues why and how strategic planning may lead to desired levels of organizational performance in a college or university. We used mixed methodology approach based on content analysis. Our exploratory work found that higher ranked universities had strategy statement that emphasized faculty. Findings highlight the importance of a clearly articulated strategy emphasizing faculty for university ranking on the sample of 203 business schools. We provide evidence that the most successful universities are likely to proactively use and manage strategy statements for attaining higher rankings and attracting more students. INTRODUCTION Many strategy scholars argued that strategy is an organizational level phenomenon (Bower, 1970; Burgelman, 1983; Farjoun, 2002; Tsai, MacMillan, & Low, 1991). As such, a clearly defined strategy and a strategic plan are viewed as the keys to a company's success (Hummelbrunner & Jones, 2013; Jain, 1993; Mintzberg, 1994b). In fact, the importance of clear planning in strategy led to the "planning school" of strategic management, and cannot be overemphasized (Eden & Ackermann, 2013; Mintzberg, 1994a; Mintzberg & Lampel, 2012). As Mintzberg (1985) wrote, strategies must be seen as an impenetrable "black box" for planning and for planners, around which, rather than inside of which, they work. Strategies may be involved in inputs to the process, support for the process, or consequences of the process. The role of planning was defined as strategic programming (Mintzberg, 1994a), where all organizations engage in formal planning, not to create strategies, but to program the strategies they already have, that is, to elaborate and operationalize their consequences formally. Planning as programming is clearly a systematic procedure to produce an articulated result (Mintzberg, Ahlstrand, & Lampel, 2005; Rumelt, 1995). Planning is decision making, or more exactly a set of coordinated decision processes evoked by the dictates of strategy (Mintzberg et al., 2005). It clearly involves future thinking, and often controlling the future as well. According to Mintzberg et al., (2005) strategic programming involves a series of steps: (1) the codification of a given strategy, including its clarification and articulation; (2) the elaboration of that strategy into substrategies, ad hoc programs, and action plans of various kinds; and (3) the conversion of those substrategies, programs, and plans into routine budgets and objectives. In this paper, we analyze codification and elaboration in the sample of university strategy statements. Strategy statements, similar to mission statements, are tools that carry the essence of strategy (Carraher, Carraher, & Mintu-Wimsatt, 2005; Cochran, David, & Gibson, 2008). Much of the literature on strategy emphasizes the importance of identifying the most advantageous spot an organization can occupy in the fast-moving markets with changing consumer preferences (Von Bergen & Bressler, 2015). Recognizing the nature of strategy on the market place and considering the difference in college and university management from corporate management, for this paper we used the following definition of strategy: "a systematic way of positioning an institution with stakeholders in its environment to create value that differentiates it from competitors and leads to a sustainable advantage" (Alfred, 2006). This definition is based on four major questions related to the future of the institution and its place in the market: (1) who are the stakeholders? (2) what do those stakeholders look for and perceive as value? (3) does strategy lead to differentiation of the institution from the peer group? (4) how long can the advantage be sustained for? …

Industry training organisations in changing times: New research possibilities

Abstract: The tertiary education reforms have placed considerable pressure on Industry Training Organisations (ITOs), which are now required to assume "new roles as strategic leaders in skills and training needs for the industries under their coverage” (Statement of Tertiary Education Priorities (STEP) 2003-04. p. 21). This paper argues that the STEP requirement can lead 10 productive relationships between ITOs and established research organisations. It considers the new context within which ITOs now operate and offers an illustrative case study of the sort of research that can result from collaborative relationships. Specifically if reports on research commissioned by the New Zealand Industry Training Organisation (NZ/TO), which covers dairy manufacturing, meat processing, and leather processing, as part of its strategic planning. The research reported includes: an analysis of the industries covered by the NZ/TO and their economic significance: the impact of an ageing workforce and other demographic on the labour market and ifs implications for NZ/TO industries: the impact of technological change on the labour market: and some of the consequences of the continuing integration of the global economy.

Missions, Matrices and University Management

Abstract: Several recent articles and studies have suggested the possibility of applying Planning - Programming - Budgeting (PPB), systems analysis and other advanced management concepts to the problems of l...

Design of an air pollution incident control plan.

Abstract: An urban air pollution incident, like a natural or man-made catastrophe, presents a crisis situation which can only be relieved if adequate contingency plans have been prepared in advance and an effective control organization is in a state of operational readiness to meet the threatened emergency. Although many air pollution incident control plans have been proposed in the past, most have remained in the conceptual or theoretical stages of preparation, because the relative infrequency of serious urban air pollution crises and the disruptive nature of major emission control operations tend to limit the opportunities available for field testing of these plans. In this respect, air pollution incident control planning is analogous to strategic planning for a military operation, where the only completely legitimate test of a strategy is applied on the battlefield. In order to accomplish the transition from conceptual planning to a practical, operational field strategy for air pollution incident control, a prog...

Compliance as Resistance to Normative Control: Evidence from the Corporatisation of Science in New Zealand

Abstract: When the New Zealand Government restructured the system of the public funding of research (1990-1992) it created Crown Research Institutes (CRIs) as companies operating in a global, market-led economy. One CRI, YCo 1 , responded to this environment by corporatisation and instituted a normative system of control of workers which, through strategic plans, vision and mission statements, and performance assessment processes, encouraged workers to adhere to company goals. This paper, reporting on an ethnographic study of this CRI, shows how most scientific workers (technical staff and scientists alike) experienced insecurity through estrangement because the contributions they wished to make were less valued both in society and in their work organisation. They were excluded from participation in both organisational and Government policy-making, and felt they did not 'belong' anymore. Scientists in particular were also experiencing alienation (in the Marxist sense), as they were losing autonomy over the production of their work and its end use. Scientific workers developed tactics in order to resist these experiences and ostensibly comply with organisational goals while maintaining and protecting their self-identities, and making their work meaningful. Meanwhile the work of the CRI continued.

Medición Estratégica en Base al Balanced Scorecard

Abstract: The organizational skill that integrates evaluation and follow-up criteria in the strategy of an enterprise is the strategic planning and management system. This strategy use tools as the Balanced Scorecard which is a technique of control of the action in a real time, based in an early alert system that must be articulated by a solid Strategy Planning. This strategy not only unified IT tolls, it also consolidate Managerial Management of the business which use instruments of synthesis like the Counterfoil Board of command and especially a graphical scheme known as a Map of Strategies. This map well outlined and weighted allows trough qualification and valuation of strategic initiatives that compose it, to measure the executorships of aims, strategies, projects and the mission of the business, needing for it to promote in the human talent a new type of cultural corporate scheme aligned with the continuous generation of value as well as the consolidation of a competitive sustainable advantage.

Location criteria for highway and school planners - part b, theoretical and methodological framework

Abstract: THIS SET OF APPENDICES TO PART A (FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS) CONSISTS OF A DISCUSSION OF THE ELEMENTS OF PLANNING, PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF QUESTIONNAIRES USED IN THE STUDY, DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION, AN ANALYSIS OF COMMUNITY VALUES IN RELATION TO THE PLANNING PROCESS, A MODEL OF CONFLICT IN PLANNING, AND APPROACHES TO THE ADJUSTMENT OF PARTISAN VIEWS.

Policy matters in investment decision-making

Abstract: McBride G. A. (1970) Policy matters in investment decision-making, Reg. Studies 4, 241–253. This paper illustrates the importance of policy determination in investment decision-making. It focuses on a methodology for formulating investment plans, using the Appalachian Development Highway System as an example. The distinguishing feature of such a program is that multiple objectives are involved; one concerned with the distribution of net benefits. In this paper, a benefit-cost framework is proposed that simultaneously treats multiple objectives, as well as other matters of policy. The framework is used to evaluate one segment of the Appalachian System. It is shown that the outcome depends largely on the policy-makers' statement of objectives, the relative values assigned to contributions to these objectives generated by the investment, and the selection of a rate of interest and economic life of the project. It is not a complete accounting of the benefits and costs, nor does it provide an estimate of multi...