Showing papers on "Surprise published in 1978"

Using Questions to Depress Student Thought

Abstract: Against the view that teacher questions are effective stimulants to student thought, I suggest that they are depressants. However, both of these notions require substantial conceptual and empirical study. While emphasis on questions is becoming increasingly pronounced, their effect upon students remains a matter of belief in practice, assertion in theory, and neglect in research. So traditional and prominent are notions as to the efficacy of teacher questions that the case could be taken for granted, as in fact it is. But it cannot be taken as proven. To assume the contrary view takes an effort of thought, misguided possibly, that leads to two conclusions. First, the grounds advanced to support the view that questions stimulate participation do not, as I construe them, provide much support. This point surprised me and may perplex others. It is elaborated here under Critique. There, the grounds that educators have marshalled from theory, practice, and research to sustain the notion are revealed as conceptually beside the point. Second, relatively stronger grounds can be found to support the contrary view, that questions depress student thought and response. This point may surprise others and encourage us to explore the grounds. They are set out here under Counterargument, drawn also from research, practice, and theory.

Surprise attack: The case of Sweden

Abstract: (1978). Surprise attack: The case of Sweden. Journal of Strategic Studies: Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 98-110.

School Social Work—Some Possibilities and Limitations

Abstract: Next to the family, school exercises the most powerful and concerted influence on children and young persons. Each of these systems1 influences the other2 yet all too often little attempt is made to delineate those areas where the influences produce conflict, or to identify ways in which the two systems can co-operate. In a society which on the one hand supports an elitist system of education yet denigrates academic prowess, and on the other upholds a “stand on your own two feet” attitude to welfare, it should come as no surprise that many children in our schools are experiencing difficulties.

George Herbert Mead and Harry Stack Sullivan: An Unfinished Synthesis

Abstract: HOW DO YOU create a new self? However he may phrase this question, it is a central theoretical and practical concern of the therapist every time he confronts a client who comes to him for help. What are the processes out of which the human self emerges? However he may phrase the question, it is a central concern of the social psychologist. The obvious convergence of interests indicated by these two questions should occasion no surprise among students of Sullivan and Mead. What perhaps should be surprising is that an effective synthesis of their theories has progressed no further than it has to date. My remarks today are based on the conviction that a more adequate psychiatric theory and practice and a more complete social psychological theory and research program depend on such a synthesis. Behavioral scientists concerned with the development of a truly interactionist social psychology are, I believe, generally agreed that George Herbert Mead (1863-1931), philosopher and social psychologist, and Harry Stack Sullivan (1892-1949), psychiatrist and social psychologist, have laid conceptual foundations upon which such a discipline can be erected. Now a vast assortment of activities is tagged as social psychology and its boundaries are, indeed, difficult to draw. However, for our present purposes we can define its focus as the study of the processes and products of inter- and intrapersonal and inter- and intragoup interaction, let the boundaries fall where they will.

Viewing as Action: Film and Reader Response Criticism

Abstract: The only character is the spectator. Alain Resnais One of the major developments in literary criticism over the past decade has been a growing concern with the role of the reader in actualizing and creating meaning. The rise of the reader correlates with the decline of the text as a stable, decipherable entity. Whereas the American New Critics, influenced by the Romantic, organicist view of the text, searched for unifying themes and patterns of imagery, meanings embedded in the text, response critics analyze the production of meaning through the act of reading. The New Critical methodology of retrospective close reading spatialized the text; most response criticism emphasizes the dynamic, temporal aspect of the interaction between text and reader. By redefining the critical enterprise as the description of a process, rather than the discovery of a product (meaning), response critics try to evade the major pitfalls of interpretation. Another likely reason for the shift of critical perspective is the increasingly intense and self-conscious reader involvement demanded by the texts themselves. Just as the New Critical approach offered a way of coping with the intricate, self-referential texture of Modernist writing, so response criticism is itself a response to the "ludic" emphasis in much contemporary literature. Epitomized by Nabokov's novels, such works are primarily constituted, not as representations or criticism of life, or as self-contained artifacts, but as elaborate games with their readers. Their challenge is not so much to our ideas about life as to consciousness itself, to the conventions by which we structure and apprehend "reality." Response critics are particularly attracted to such works, not only because they engage their readers so directly, but also because they dramatize the constructive nature of perception. The relationship between response criticism and developments in hermeneutics and contemporary literature is fairly evident; less obvious, but just as important, are its connections with cinematic experience. In this essay, I propose to examine the work of two of the most influential response criticsStanley Fish and Wolfgang Iser- in relation to film. Although neither critic deals directly with film, the conception of literature underlying their methods is strikingly cinematic, while the methods themselves are often explained through film analogy. Their work is another indication of the extent to which our experience of films has altered, often unconsciously, the way we write, read, and think about literature. In turn, the methods of Fish and Iser offer valuable tools to the practical film critic. We need new ways of analyzing film response. The idea is to restore film to the dynamic, experiential context usually ignored or suppressed by formalists, while avoiding the breezy imprecision of impressionist criticism and the narrow dogmatism of much psychoanalytic study. Of course, both methods entail disadvantages of their own; my claim is not that they offer a complete and infallible account of response, but simply that they bring into relief some of its neglected features. Stanley Fish is best known for the model of reading set forth in his essay "Affective Stylistics: Literature in the Reader" (1970).1 Fish's affective method is simply "an analysis of the developing responses of the reader in relation to the words as they succeed one another in time."2 By "response," Fish means a succession of deliberative acts performed by readers of specifiable linguistic and literary "competence" under pressure of the temporal flow. These acts include "the making and revising of assumptions, the rendering and regretting of judgments, the coming to and abandoning of conclusions, the giving and withdrawing of approval, the specifying of causes, the asking of questions, the supplying of answers, the solving of puzzles."3 Although the acts are primarily cognitive, they result in such emotional experiences as surprise, regret, embarrassment, fulfillment, and frustration. …

Short (and Long) War Responses: Restructuring, Border Defense, and Reserve Mobilization for Armored Warfare.

Abstract: : Contents: The Political Problem Of Divergent Interests And Perceptions Of The Military Balance; The Military Problem Of Operational Concept And Organization; Countering The Surprise Attack--A Critique; New Approaches For Countering Surprise; Territorial Defense: Countering Surprise And Obtaining Border And In-Depth Defense; Organizing For Armored Warfare And Operational Reserves; Driving Militarily Robust And Politically Satisfactory Solutions

'Barbarossa': Surprise Attack and Communication

Abstract: Since the beginning of the second world war there have been four surprise attacks which have made a world-wide impact on politicalmilitary thinking: 'Barbarossa', Pearl Harbour, the Six-Day War and the October War. Despite some differences, these four present noteworthy similarities and can be considered as a group. In general terms the intention of a surprise attack is to shock and paralyze the political-military system, in the hope that any recovery will at best be slow. If it is successful, the shock of the attack will make it difficult for those immediately involved to understand what is happening (that is to 'read' the battle), it will confuse priorities and disrupt communications. These three shock effects are complementary and reinforcing. The victims and defenders are hard-pressed to adjust to their new and rapidly changing situation, so that they can scarcely pull themselves together and make useful reports. Their commanders, for lack of information or worse still, on the basis of inaccurate information, tend to go on doing what they have been trained to do and to take measures they believe are still appropriate. One crucial problem for people under the influence of surprise is their diminishing capacity for communication. In severe cases, a state of intense shock is attained in which some people cannot respond at all, but at best communication will be disrupted. Of the four surprise attacks mentioned above, 'Barbarossa' the largest in scope and intention Pearl Harbour and the October War are alike in that they were all initially successful but failed ultimately to achieve their military aims, the victim eventually gaining the upper hand and defeating the aggressor on the battlefield. However, the initial success of the tactical surprise had far-reaching consequences in all three cases. 'Barbarossa' is still the most striking example of a brilliant but ultimately inadequate attack upon a pitifully ill-

THE ABBOTTS OF McGILL

Abstract: The stories of three members of the Abbott family that follow are as various in their manner of surprise as they are in their matter. We learn salutory things about the precarious and comic-opera way in which things are apt to be managed in the early stages of what later may become a mighty and admired institution. There is the story of a man beginning with qualifications that would fail to get him tenure today, and emerging in turn as Dean of Law, Mayor of Montreal, and Prime Minister of Canada. We hear with astonishment of certain luridly melodramatic events that determined the upbringing of one of the notable personalities of the golden age of McGill, a woman remembered with affection by many. Each story throws light in its novel way both on McGill and on the enterprise of education.

The Nonmajor: A Challenge and a Responsibility.

Abstract: Biology teachers at undergraduate colleges would do well to look around and see who is sifting in those seats out there these days. If they are the same people usually there, they will not be for long. Several factors are combining to bring about radical changes that will require creative responses from all of us who teach biology in colleges. The pendulum swing from free choice of curriculum to more ordered core and area requirements can be expected to bring more students into the biology department whether the students dragged in like it or notand some will not. At the same time that enrollment of majors from other disciplines increases, we can expect a decrease in the enrollment of majors and others taking biology as a first step toward a career. Last year half of the forestry school graduates failed to find immediate employment in forestry at the professional level (Pardo, personal communication). As this word gets around, we can expect-indeed should encourage-a decline in the number of preforestry students. For the first time in a long time, the number of applications to medical school is down (Roark 1978). The word is out: a lot of students are being more realistic about their chances of becoming medical students and are asking whether they want to do what is necessary to become doctors. Any drop in the premedical enrollment will make a big difference at the undergraduate level, for the enrollment in many departments of biology has been sustained by the many hopefuls aspiring to become doctors. The teaching profession is not hungry for new recruits as it once was (Graybeal 1978). Declining enrollments and burgeoning Proposition 13's make a student think twice about a career as a high school biology teacher. Graduate school? Yes, there is graduate school, but students must think carefully before committing themselves to pursuit of a Ph.D. It would be prudent to check the market first. In short, nonmajors who have too often been unidentified fillers in courses designed for someone else are likely to become very welcome additions to our classes. Let us hope that our increasing need for them will be matched by our attention to their needs. Here are ten principles that may be helpful to those interested in providing a square deal for the nonmajor. 1. Nonmajors are not, by definition, less able than majors. Plenty of people smart enough to be biology majors have chosen other areas of specialization. It is insulting to provide them a superficial Mickey Mouse course; they deserve a course worthy of them. Nonmajors may have weaker backgrounds in chemistry and mathematics, but it should be no surprise to find nonmajors whose high school biology was superb and biology majors who had poor high school biology courses. 2. Nonmajors forced to take biology against their will often lack motivation; therefore those of us who already know the excitement and wonder of biology must find ways to share this enthusiasm with the diffident nonmajor. It is true that someone who chose biology for a career would already be disposed to appreciate it and to work hard; it is true that those whose success in a career depends upon grades in biology are often willing to do anything to get that grade. But it is also true that nonmajors can be motivated to enjoy biology and to succeed. Many can discover in biology a fascinating world they never knew existed, and those who do are likely to be grateful all their lives that someone took the pains to call it to their attention. 3. Nonmajors can bring a rich mixture of special knowledge to the course. These resources, each supplementing the other, canF enrich the whole class. It is a delight to have students bring to a subject different points of view from the vantage point of their favorite disciplines. It adds so much to a class to have "experts" who can enrich and amplify the discussion from their own backgrounds. My biggest disappointment is not to find an English major who lacks a rich background in biology but to find one who does not write well. It is more disappointing to find a philosophy major inept in logic and insensitive to ethical issues than to find one who has to be taught the biology at issue.The riches students bring to the

By precept and example.

Abstract: The presidency of the Western Surgical Association is an honor that comes as a stunning surprise, heartwarming to be sure from the knowledge that friends have judged one worthy of the office, but also somewhat frightening with the sudden realization that the title carries with it certain demanding obligations, not the least of which is the presidential address. Having listened to and read the many provocative statements made by past presidents of our Society, I quite naturally was awed by the prospect of trying to bring any really meaningful message to our membership. However, when I had time to reflect, the challenge became an opportunity to express my convictions, my concerns, and my hopes and expectations for the future of surgery in this country. I deeply thank you for this privilege. All of us are aware of the public's growing disenchantment with the medical profession, fanned by the frequently distorted

Texts and Teaching: Basic Writing.

Abstract: IN MANY COLLEGES and universities, the term remedial as a description of courses for students deficient in writing skills is no longer used. It is a subjective term, full of cultural bias. The word whispers that there is an etiquette whose customs and proprieties these students are distant from, a body of laws they all unwillingly cannot obey, an alienness they must dispel. The term only obscures their true linguistic needs. So we use basic (self-explanatory, neutral) or developmental (positive, forward-looking). Over the years,l we have come to expect of ourselves and others the sensitivity this implies, and so it may come as somewhat of a surprise to be reminded that there is one term used almost universally that in no way reflects this sensitivity. That is the term beginner. Everywhere, the skills-deficient students sitting in a remedial-developmentalbasic writing classroom are beginners. Granted they must be called by some name. But I suggest that this term is a misnomer and that-if only by analogy and certainly without our becoming too glued to nomenclature as revelation-we can trace back to the use of beginner various self-defeating teaching practices. We find our troubles in a word because our starting-point conception of skills-deficient students provides a basis for understanding, if not the reasons, then at least the manner in which they make errors and in which they can best receive instruction. To the extent that we are in the dark about this, we will fail to spark literacy. It is my contention that, compared to the success we might have, we do fail. In what follows, I propose to examine some of the underlying causes of this failure and to suggest some new perspectives and courses of action, particularly as they relate to instructional materials and the teaching methods that are formed in accordance with them.2

An Historical Event and its Interpretation: The Castilian Grain Crisis of 1506-1507 *

Abstract: We are all familiar with situations in which we study an historical event, think that we understand it, and then, to our surprise, discover that other historians interpret it quite differently. This happened to me recently, and I should like to describe here what happened, meaning my original understanding and then the interpretations of others who had studied it before me but whose works I had not known about, and then try to draw some conclusions from the experience.

FL Exposure Beyond the Classroom: How to Import Theater.

Abstract: Of the subjects taught in a classroom, FLs most easily retain a high degree of artificiality. They come alive only to the extent that students respond to the implications of make-believe. Stefan Zweig, in his "Schachnovelle," brilliantly describes the protagonist's emotions on seeing a real chess board for the first time after having played the game against himself as a strategy of mental survival during a long period of solitary confinement. His sudden encounter with real chess corresponds to the surprise American students experience when they first arrive in a country where people actually speak the language the students have known only in the classroom. It is difficult for a teacher to counteract the artificiality of the classroom, and it is therefore desirable to provide the student with as many examples of language as a true living process as possible.