Showing papers on "Water scarcity published in 1995"

Sustaining water: an update. Revised data for the Population Action International report Sustaining Water: Population and the Future of Renewable Water Supplies.

Abstract: Data are presented on the annual per capita availability of renewable fresh water in 149 countries for the years 1955 and 1990 and on the annual per capita projected availability of renewable fresh water for UN low medium and high population projections in these countries for the years 2025 and 2050. Figures are given for total annual renewable fresh water by country in cubic kilometers population in thousands and per capita water availability in cubic meters. Renewable water is that which falls on a countrys territory or flows in from neighboring countries and is all the water a country can use sustainably. These updated figures reveal that if the UNs medium population projections become reality by the middle of the coming century 4.4 billion of the nearly 10 billion people on the planet will live in 58 countries experiencing either water scarcity or water stress. If the high projection occurs 7.7 billion people (65% of the worlds population) will live in 66 water-short nations. The low projection would see 3.5 billion people (44%) living in 51 water-short countries out of a total population of 7.9 billion.

Hydropolitics : conflicts over water as a development constraint

Abstract: The role of water and the origins of conflict, Leif Ohlsson the Nile - source of life, source of conflict, Jan Hultin water and the Arab-Israeli conflict, Helena Lindholm Turkey, Syria and Iraq - a hydropolitical security complex, Michael Schulz India - the domestic and international politics of water scarcity, Elizabeth Corell and Ashok Swain southeast Asia - co-operation or conflict over water?, Joakim Ojendal looming water crisis - new approaches are inevitable, Malin Falkenmark and Jan Lundqvist

Reforming Water Allocation Policy Through Markets in Tradable Water Rights: Lessons From Chile, Mexico, and California

Abstract: Increasing water scarcity , rising costs of irrigation subsidies , and general economic liberalization are creating strong incentives for comprehensive water reform with establishment of tradable water rights and the development of markets in these rights. Experiences in Chile , Mexico , and California indicate that water allocation through markets in tradable water rights offers a viable approach to improving the efficiency of water allocation , and should receive serious consideration from developing country policy makers. Laws establishing tradable rights should be simple and comprehensive , should clearly define the characteristics of water rights and the conditions and regulations governing the trade of water rights ; should establish and implement water rights registers ; delineate the roles of the government , institutions , and individuals involved in water allocation and the ways of solving conflicts between them ; and provide cost-effective protection against negative third party and environmental effects which can arise from water trades .

Rivers of Conflict, Rivers of Peace

Abstract: In arid and semi-arid regions of the world where water scarcity is a fact of life, the search for water punctuates the history of communities and mediates their political relations. Fresh water is vital for human survival, yet its availability is uneven and substitutes do not exist. The struggle for access to, and control over, water supplies has consistently provoked tensions and conflict between communities and nations. However, if the parties involved in the struggle for access to scarce water were to perceive a mutual benefit in sharing the resource, then perhaps that resource could become the vehicle for cementing cooperative relations among them. In part this is what political functionalists during and following the Second World War were suggesting as a solution to international conflict: Peace could be achieved if ways were found for adversarial states to collaborate in technical and other non-political matters.(1) Over time, continuous cooperation in technical areas would bind states together in such a way that their political differences would recede in importance and eventually disappear. The former adversaries would come to realize that there was far more to gain from peaceful relations. Unfortunately, the record of technical collaboration among adversarial states spilling over into political cooperation is far more sobering than the idealists of mid-century would have us believe.(2) Furthermore, political conflicts are sometimes so visceral and primordial that they simply cannot be ignored; over the course of their duration, they become an inextricable part of the identities of the parties involved. Under such circumstances, technical collaboration cannot be facilitated; rather it must await political settlement. The Middle East is the most water-poor region of the globe, with the world's lowest per capita consumption of water. The problem attendant to water scarcity is particularly acute in the Middle East, as the region has one of the fastest growing populations. In addition, there are a number of rivers in this region that traverse international boundaries established during the 20th century, and that have become a focus of interstate tensions. Per Capita Surface Water Availability in the Jordan and Euphrates Basins, 1990(3) Total Per Capita Water/year Population Water (bcm) (millions) (cubic meters) Iraq 91.20 17.0 5364 Israel 1.95 4.6 424 Jordan 0.77 3.3 233 Lebanon 4.80 2.7 1600 Syria 23.00 13.0 1769 Turkey 100.00 55.0 1818 West Bank/ Gaza 0.20 1.8 111 In this article, I discuss two transboundary river basins in the Middle East: the Jordan River basin, which includes Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and the West Bank; and the Euphrates River Basin, which includes Iraq, Syria and Turkey. In these basins, no binding arrangements for sharing the waters exist, yet some form of cooperation is imperative in order to meet the immediate and long-term needs of the states and peoples in question. The article is divided into four sections. I begin by outlining the prevailing views regarding how best to develop and manage the waters of a transboundary river basin. I explain why unitary basin-wide development under some form of supranational authority is considered optimal, and I describe the record to date in achieving this goal. In the second section, I focus on the Jordan and Euphrates River basins; I describe their geopolitical settings, outline the history of efforts to achieve cooperative solutions to water development and management, and analyze outcomes. I then summarize the obstacles to cooperation, emphasizing the preferences of the riparian states in each basin. …

Water Crisis in the Mediterranean: Agricultural Water Demand Management

Abstract: (1995). Water Crisis in the Mediterranean: Agricultural Water Demand Management. Water International: Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 176-187.

Absorção de água pelas plantas: água disponível versus extraível e a produtividade das culturas

Abstract: An important issue to understanding the effect of water shortage on crop yield is how crops balance the supply of water from the soil to match the demand for water from the atmosphere. Supply is determined by the crop ability to utilise the stored soil water and, demand, on the other hand, is determined by a combination of metereological factors interacting with the crop canopy. Different criteria have been used to determine the timing and duration of water deficits despite the abundant literature available. Much attention has been given to the quantification of crop water consumption in different stages of development. However, considerations about the total amount of plant water available (extractable) in the soil profile to affect plant growth and development have recieved little attention. A discussion of water extraction must first consider the problem of accurately defining the limits to soil water availability. This review presents a critical analysis of the limitations usually encountered in using the limits concept of soil water availability. The relationship between water available and extractable is analysed based on results of transpiration rates and fraction of available water, depth of water extraction and, extraction per unit soil depth.

Water Management in the Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin: Emerging Challenges for the 21st Century

Abstract: In the background of increasing global consciousness that scarcity of water will become a major obstacle to sustainable development in the next century, this paper analyses the future challenges in water resource planning and management in the Ganges-Brahmaputra basin in Asia. It analyses the problems of water scarcity and regular annual flooding in some parts of the basin with the help of its geomorphological and climatic peculiarities. The ecological sustainability and economic viability of big dams in the Himalaya are examined. The problems of undertaking joint projects on water resources between the upstream countries of Nepal and Bhutan and the downstream country of India are analysed. Similarly, the problem of the sharing of Ganges waters between India and Bangladesh is presented. The paper summarizes some main elements of the challenges to be faced in the immediate future in order that the densely populated river basin can keep open the options of sustainable development in the future.

Tradable property rights to water : how to improve water use and resolve water conflicts

Abstract: In most countries, water is still regarded as public property. Despite growing water scarcity and the high costs of hydraulic infrastructure, water is typically underpriced and used wastefully. Some water-scarce countries have permitted informal sales of water for a season or permanent sales of property rights to water. This Note cited examples of countries that passed legislation to permit tradable property rights to water. The advantages of tradable property rights to water are 1) improved productivity of water, 2) sound investment, and 3) increased investment and growth. A tradable water rights system also has the potential to improve operations, reduce water conflicts, rationalize ongoing and future irrigation development, and free up government resources for activities that have a public good content or positive externalities. And it is likely to especially benefit the poor and to help conserve natural resources.

Shortage Indices for Water-Resources Planning in Taiwan

Abstract: Water shortage is a major socioeconomic problem facing society today. From the viewpoint of water-resources planning, an effective water-shortage index should capture such basic characteristics as its frequency, intensity, and duration. Moreover, a shortage index should serve as an indicator of the social tolerance limits to water shortage. A well-designed water-shortage index plays an important role in water-resources planning and management, particularly in conducting feasibility studies associated with system-capacity expansion. The main purpose of this study is to develop a generalized shortage index (GSI) by modifying other water-shortage indices that are currently utilized in Japan and the United States. The proposed GSI not only incorporates the basic shortage characteristics, but also emphasizes the consequential socioeconomic impacts of water shortage. By using historical streamflow records, projected future water demands, and a river-basin simulation model, a methodology is developed to analyze ...

Global water crisis: the major issue of the 21st century, a growing and explosive problem.

Abstract: The authors explore what is considered to be the emerging issue of the 21st century shortages of water. It is expected that the Netherlands which is entirely dependent on water from other countries will be in an extremely vulnerable position. The quantity of fresh water is limited. Contamination of water reduces water quality and availability. Many World Bank projects focus on management of the water supply for sanitation irrigation hydroelectric power and construction of dikes in order to prevent flooding. The World Bank concludes that everyone worldwide must acknowledge that fresh water is a scarce natural resource. The Action Plan Agenda 21 of the UN Rio Conference emphasized the importance of the widespread shortage gradual destruction and increased pollution of fresh water reserves. The four major world problems with fresh water are 1) shortages of renewable supplies 2) unequal distribution of supplies 3) problems of water quality and health and 4) disastrous effects of unrestrained construction of dams and reservoirs. Only 2.5% of the total amount of water on earth is fresh water of which 69.4% is in the form of ice snow or permafrost and most of the remainder is ground water. Fresh water in lakes and rivers is only about 1% of fresh water available on earth. Most of the precipitation that falls on land every year is lost through evaporation. 45000 sq. km is the absolute maximum available annually. Distribution of water among industry agriculture and households varies by country. Arid regions constitute about 33% of Europe 60% of Asia 85% of Africa and most of Australia and western North America. 14% of countries are at or under the poverty line of water availability 37% have dangerously dry conditions 14% have average levels and 35% have ample supplies. Examples of water management are given for the Amazon River the Euphrates and Tigris the Aral Sea and the Rhine River Basin. It is estimated that the world supply of fresh water would meet the needs of 4.5-9.0 billion people.

Financing water and sanitation services : the old and new challenges

Abstract: The water supply and sanitation sector faces two great challenges in developing countries. The first challenge is to complete the old agenda of providing household services. Although considerable progress has been made, much remains to be done. A billion people still lack access to an adequate supply of water, and 1.7 billion do not have adequate sanitation facilities. The second challenge is the new agenda of environmentally sustainable development. In some respects high costs and limited resources - the situation confronting developing countries is similar to that faced by industrialized countries. But in other respects the task for developing countries is considerably more difficult: water in developing countries is much more seriously degraded and is deteriorating rapidly; far fewer financial resources are available for environmental protection; and institutional capacity is weaker. Completing the old agenda and addressing the new agenda constitute a daunting challenge for developing countries. This paper describes some of the more imaginative and promising approaches to addressing these challenges at different levels, ranging from self-financed sewers in an informal settlement in Karachi, Pakistan, to the emergence of participatory river basin management in Brazil. From such promising experiences, two central elements can be discerned.

Managing the colorado river in a severe sustained drought an evaluation of institutional options

Abstract: This paper presents a summary of the findings and recommendations of the studies of severe, sustained drought reported in this special issue. The management facilities and institutions were found to be effective in protecting consumptive water users against drought, but much less effective in protecting nonconsumptive uses. Changes in intrastate water management were found to be effective in reducing the monetary value of damages, through reallocating shortages to low-valued uses, while only water banking and water marketing, among the possible interstate rule changes, were similarly effective. Players representing the basin states and the federal government in three gaming experiments were unable to agree upon and effect major changes in operating rules. The conclusions are (1) that nonconsumptive water uses are highly vulnerable to drought, (2) that consumptive uses are well-protected, (3) that drought risk is greatest in the Upper Basin, (4) that the Lower Basin suffers from chronic water shortage but bears little drought risk, (5) that opportunities exist for win-win rule changes, (6) that such rule changes are extremely difficult to make, and (7) that intrastate drought management is very effective m in reducing potential damages.

Guessing or assessing the world's water resources?

Abstract: It is something of a paradox that, at this time when the global demand for water is rising faster than ever before, knowledge of the world's water resources is waning. The networks of instruments which provide the basis for this knowledge are considered, with the errors of measurements involved. Work on reducing these errors, particularly the introduction of total quality management, is discussed. The conclusion is reached that a reliable assessment of the world's water resources is some distance away. This presents problems to bodies involved in their development and management and to those organizations who wish to provide the United Nations' Commission for Sustainable Development with an assessment of global water resources for its session in 1997 - an assessment which will then be presented to a special session of the UN General Assembly.

Timeliness of irrigation: Performance indicators and impact on agricultural production in the Sone Irrigation System, Bihar

Abstract: Despite considerable discussion of the importance of timeliness as a key dimension of irrigation performance, few studies have assessed how well irrigation systems deliver timely water supplies, nor the magnitude of the effect on agricultural production. This paper lays out indicators of timeliness of irrigation supply which distinguish between deliveries which meet crop needs, and surplus water supplies which cannot be used by crops. These indicators are then applied to empirical data from the Sone Irrigation System of Bihar, India. Using these indicators in an analysis of the contribution of irrigation to rice production shows that incorporating measures of timeliness explains much more of the variability in agricultural production than do simple measures of total water applications over a season. Results of production functions show that if water deliveries cannot be matched with crop requirements, they have a negative, rather than a positive, impact on yields. Water scarcity has the greatest adverse impact in production in the middle of the season, while surpluses are most damaging at the beginning and end of the season. Temporal redistribution from surplus periods to times of water scarcity therefore offers considerable scope to increase productivity without increasing water use.

Whither world water

Abstract: The last decade has seen accelerated interest in international hydropolitics. Yet, the international politics of the world's fresh water are highly complicated, some might even say byzantine. This paper discusses some of these complications, the background to them, and the place of fresh water in recent environmental initiatives, particularly in UNCED. It proposes a way forward for the future in order to improve international cooperation to assist in averting the coming water crisis.

The Namibian Perspective on Regional Collaboration in the Joint Development of International Water Resources

Abstract: Water scarcity is a common phenomenon in Namibia and all future development relies on access to the available international perennial rivers bordering the country. The principle that water resources must be managed on a regional basis is well established in Namibia and several technical water commissions have been established between Namibia and its neighbours to provide a forum for regional collaboration on water matters. The value of the work of these commissions lies not only in the technical objectives but also in mutual trust, and understanding between those commission members representing the expectations and concerns of each basin state. The purpose of this article is to describe the salient features of regional collaboration on river basin development from the Namibian perspective.

Water-Resources Management System for Saudi Arabia

Abstract: Saudi Arabia faces severe water problems and needs new water policies to achieve sustainable development in its harsh environment. Problems include balancing supply and demand while facing aridity and water scarcity, nonrenewable supplies, poor quality of ground water, maldistribution of supplies, salt water intrusion, and overdrafting and contamination of aquifers. Although a great deal is known about its water resources and problems, developing effective planning and regulatory systems and other institutions is Saudi Arabia’s principal water policy challenge. Building on previous reports on water issues, this paper compares the kingdom’s water-management tasks with state government programs in the United States, including water law; planning, management, and coordination processes; organizational structure; infrastructure development; water-quality management; conservation programs; regulation, standards, and enforcement; and support functions. Water law and regulations are needed in Saudi Arabia, especially for conservation, ground-water management, and water-quality management. Defining roles and responsibilities is a challenge in both the United States and Saudi Arabia, but in Saudi Arabia intergovernmental issues are less daunting than in the United States. However, water security is a bigger challenge in Saudi Arabia. As the kingdom moves into the next decade, a water-management system should clearly be high priority during policy making.

The Cultural Effects of Conveyance Loss in Gravity-Fed Irrigation Systems

Abstract: Anthropological analyses of power in hydraulic and hydroagricultural societies have tended to concentrate on the larger issues of state development and maintenance of power (see Adams 1966; Butzer 1976; Harris 1977; Wittfogel 1957). For the most part these discussions have glossed over issues vital to the particular forms of nondespotic irrigation societies that evolved despite their hydraulic infrastructural base. One such vital issue is that of conveyance loss. Conveyance loss refers to the water that is lost as irrigation water travels from its source to the fields. The factors that lead to conveyance loss include evaporation, evapotranspiration, seepage, and spillage. The phenomenon of conveyance loss in gravity-fed systems has implications for the evolution and structuring of societies reliant on the delivery of water for agriculture. This essay is a comparative study of conveyance loss in gravity-fed irrigation systems. After a critical consideration of some of the relevant ethnographic literature and theoretical issues, some field data from the Egyptian Fayoum are analyzed in relation to what is known of the effects of conveyance loss in other societies. During the past decade there has been an increasing realization that as a result of limited water sources and conveyance loss, unlined gravity-fed irrigation systems favor irrigators whose plots are located toward the top of the canal network (Bromley et al. 1980; Moore 1980; Skold et al. 1984; Wade 1988). The unequal access to water, if unchecked, leads to differential agricultural returns that are translated into differential economic and social benefits for top-ended system members. In both hydraulic and hydroagricultural societies, conveyance loss affects agricultural productivity. In societies that have private property, the effects of conveyance loss have a special importance. In irrigation societies without private property, conveyance loss affects the overall productivity of specific lands and the system as a whole, but it does not necessarily differentially reward individuals. The combination of conveyance loss and private property results in differential agricultural returns favoring up-canal irrigators who can convert these elements into personal gains. There are other factors besides conveyance loss that are responsible for water shortages in irrigation systems and up-canal monopolies on water use; not all scarcity in irrigation systems is caused by conveyance loss. Conveyance loss is but one factor affecting water scarcity in irrigation systems around the world. The general limited nature of water in irrigation systems around the world of course has a profound effect in determining up-canal and down-canal relationships. While analysts such as Wade (1988:72) stress that up-canal water users must follow "rules of restraint" and allocate water in an equitable manner, a complete understanding of the nature of water allocation cannot occur without accounting for conveyance loss. Conveyance loss accentuates the inherent inequalities of upstream/downstream relationships. There are countless statements testifying that conveyance loss seriously diminishes agricultural returns. Wade (1988:163) writes that in the South uplands of India "villages towards the tail-end of an irrigation distributary tend to have a less adequate, more unreliable water supply than villages higher up." The up-canal advantages for these farmers are many: With water, those owning land closest to the canal outlet have first access and under simple common rights cannot be prevented from taking as much as they wish by those lower down who see themselves disadvantaged by excessive use higher up-no more than a driver on a road can be excluded by later arrivals who find the road congested. Because of this, top-enders are inclined to waste water and to skimp on maintenance of field channels, and may dispose of their drainage water in ways inconvenient to tail-enders. …

Assessing risk for water harvesting systems in arid environments

Abstract: Climate variability is perhaps the most common and unpredictable problem that farm ers in dryland regions have to face year by year. This fact has established the need for developing methodologies for coping with water scarcity. One of the most widely used strategies (among cropping patterns, soil management, new and improved varieties, etc.) has been the implementation of water harvesting systems. The efficiency of the system is strongly associated with its expensiveness and therefore, risk assessment should be an integral part of any project involving water harvesting systems. This paper focuses on a review of methodologies that have been used for assessing risk in small scale water harvesting systems. A simulation-modeling stochastic approach is discussed highlighting the concept of risk behavior.

The dynamics of river basin cooperation: The Nile and Okavango basins

Abstract: This chapter examines the Nile and Okavango basins in a comparative manner. Central issues raised include the aspect of scale, not only in terms of actual numbers, but also in terms of political complexity. The teleology of water scarcity and conflict is refuted, with the discourse of cooperation providing the main backdrop to the chapter. Because cooperation is about changing paradigms from water-sharing to benefit-sharing, the case is made that transboundary rivers challenge sovereignty and independent national development priorities – the main theme of this book. Two significant common aspects in both the Nile and the Okavango are the attempts to ‘enhance’ yield by manipulating wetlands through dredging, and the issues raised by post-conflict reconstruction. Both basins contain wetlands of major proportions, which make them interesting case studies when considering river basins comparatively.

Troubled waters: population and water scarcity.

Abstract: Renewable fresh water is becoming increasingly scarce in many regions of the world. Although techniques are continually being developed and honed to capture and store fresh water and for making more efficient use of it no technology can significantly expand the finite resource base. Impossible to substitute and expensive to transport fresh water is essential to human health development and life. However inadequate attention is being given to how best to manage the available supply of fresh water. Moreover fresh water management is rarely considered in the context of population growth as analysts fail to understand the impact that increased population pressures upon the worlds fresh water supply can have upon human health the environment and international security. Limits to fresh water resources population and water implications for health and the environment water and conflict and strategies to ensure an adequate supply of fresh water are discussed.

Dealing with water scarcity in the next century

Abstract: Reform of water policy is urgently needed to avert severe national, regional, and local water scarcities that will depress agricultural production and worsen water-related health problems. Water is abundant globally but scarce locally. Countries are considered water scarce when annual internal renewable water resources are less than 1,000 cubic meters per capita per year. Below this threshold, water availability is considered a severe constraint on socioeconomic development and environmental quality. Currently, some 30 countries are considered water stressed, of which 20 are absolutely water scarce. By 2020, the number of water scarce countries will likely approach 35. Equally worrisome, virtually all developing countries, even those with adequate water in the aggregate, suffer from debilitating seasonal and regional shortages that urgently need to be addressed. Cooperation between countries sharing the same water basin will become increasingly important as water becomes scarcer. Reconciliation is cheaper than armed conflict. A key to defusing potential international conflicts over water is national water policy reform to ensure the most efficient use of available water supplies. Countries must therefore begin the painful process of reforming national water policies and treating water as a scarce resource.

Water resources planning in the Middle East: application of the PROMETHEE V multicriteria method

Abstract: Water resources issues in the Middle East are increasingly becoming major complicating factors in the socio-political problems of the region. With all the economic problems and water availability constraints facing decision makers, there are a wide variety of options available to the countries of the Middle East. This paper examines some of these options for Jordan, arguably the one country in the region which potentially faces the worst water crisis. The paper describes the application of the PROMETHEE V multicriteria method to evaluate and select from a variety of potentially feasible water resources development options, so that the allocation of limited funds to alternative development projects and programs can proceed in the most efficient manner. Important policy issues such as environmental protection, water demand and supply management, and regional cooperation can be explicitly considered using the multicriteria procedure. Generalizing the approach to a Middle Eastern regional context is also discussed. © 1995.

Tradable Property Rights to Water

Abstract: In most countries, water is still regarded as public property. Public officials decide who gets it, at what price, and how it is used. The government also takes responsibility for building and operating the necessary hydraulic infrastructure for water delivery. The track record of such administered systems of water allocation has not been impressive. Despite growing water scarcity and the high costs of hydraulic infrastructure, water is typically underpriced and used wastefully, the infrastructure is frequently poorly conceived, built, and operated, and delivery is often unreliable. Water quality has not been well maintained, and waterlogging and salinity have not been properly controlled. These systems also have tended to favor the relatively wealthy. Wealthier farmers manage to get easier access to water rights, which are usually obtained without charge and for whose use farmers pay only a small fraction of the cost of building and operating the associated irrigation infrastructure. Similarly, while the better-off residents in many cities in developing countries enjoy access to cheap, municipally supplied water, many of the poor in the same cities must resort to very expensive private water truckers to meet their daily needs. Recent government efforts to improve the management of water resources have moved away from building hydraulic infrastructure to strengthening institutions, improving pricing policies, and handing management down to water associations and communities. This approach has worked well when public funds have been available, when institutions have been strong and effective, and when there has been close cooperation among water users. But as public finances become more strained and conflicts among users grow, the chances of this approach

Economic analysis of selected water policy options for the Pacific northwest. Agriculture economic report

Abstract: Agriculture in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) could use significantly less water with minimal impact on agricultural economic returns. Less water use by agriculture makes more water available for municipal, industrial, and recreational uses; for improved water quality and wildlife habitat; and for Native American water rights claims. Net water savings up to 18.5 percent of current levels of field-crop use can be realized by such actions as reducing Bureau of Reclamation (BoR) surface-water diversion, improving water-use efficiency, and raising the cost of water. Effects on agricultural economic returns for PNW field crops range from a decline of $22 million (1.7 percent) to an increase of $171 million (13.1 percent). Combining different approaches spreads the conservation burden among farmers, water suppliers, and production regions.

Water resources management under drought or water shortage conditions : proceedings of the EWRA 95 Symposium, Nicosia/Cyprus/14-18 March, 1995

Abstract: Drought in the Mediterranean drought mitigation measures advanced technologies for saving water non-conventional water to face water shortage water resources management under risk conditions. (Part contents).