Showing papers on "Written language published in 1997"

Attention, Awareness, and Foreign Language Behavior

Abstract: This study qualitatively and quantitatively addressed the role of awareness in relation to Schmidt's noticing hypothesis in second language acquisition (1990, 1993, 1994, 1995). It analyzed both the think-aloud protocols produced by 28 beginning adult L2 learners of Spanish (selected carefully from a pool of 85 people on the basis of relevant criteria) completing a problem-solving task and their immediate performances on 2 post-exposure assessment tasks, a recognition and written production task. The qualitative and quantitative analyses of learners' performances suggest the following conclusions: (a) Different levels of awareness lead to differences in processing, (b) more awareness contributes to more recognition and accurate written production of noticed forms, and (c) the findings provide empirical support for the facilitative effects of awareness on foreign language behavior.

Measures of Linguistic Accuracy in Second Language Writing Research

Abstract: Because a literature review revealed that the descriptions of measures of linguistic accuracy in research on second language writing are often inadequate and their reliabilities often not reported, I completed an empirical study comparing 3 measures. The study used a holistic scale, error-free T-units, and an error classification system on the essays of English as a second language (ESL) students. I present detailed discussion of how each measure was implemented, give intra- and interrater reliabilities and discuss why disagreements arose within a rater and between raters. The study will provide others doing research in the area of L2 writing with a comprehensive description that will help them select and use a measure of linguistic accuracy.

Literacy and Deafness: The Development of Reading, Writing, and Literate Thought

Abstract: All chapters conclude with "A Final Word" and "Further Readings." Preface. 1.Introduction to Literacy and Deafness. Metatheorizing in Literacy and Deafness. Perspectives on Literacy. Two World-Views for Theorizing, Research, and Instruction. Discussion of Deafness. Overview of Literacy Achievement and Deafness. 2.Reading-Comprehension Perspective: Theories and Research on Hearing Students. Reading-Comprehension Framework: The Notion of Models. Bottom-Up Models. Top-Down Models. Interactive Models. Research on Reading-Comprehension and Hearing Students: A Summary. 3.Reading-Comprehensive Perspective: Research on Students Who Are Deaf. Perspectives on Reading Achievement and Deafness. Select Subgroups. Research on Selected Text-Based Variables. Research on Selected Reader-Based Variables. 4.The Development of Writing. Models of Writing. Critique of the Three Broad Theoretical Views. Research on Written Language and Hearing Students. Stages of Written Language Development. Research on Written Language and Students Who Are Deaf. The Reading-Writing Connection: Future Directions. 5.Literary Critical Perspectives. Critical Theory: A Brief Introduction. Critical Theory and Literacy. Clinical and Cultural Perspectives. 6.Second-Language Literacy. Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning: Description. Theories of Second-Language Learning and Second-Language Literacy. The Development of L1 and L2: Similar or Different? Type of Student and Language Goal. Synthesis of Research. The Notion of Transfer. ASL and Second-Language Literacy: Remarks and Future Research. 7.Instruction and First-Language Literacy, [Martha G. Gaustad, Bowling Green State University Peter V. Paul, The Ohio State University]. General Instructional Issues. The Emergence of Literacy Skills: Focus on Typical Readers/Writers. Beginning Literacy and Children Who are Deaf. Instruction: Actions for Meeting Literacy Readiness. Instruction for Classroom Development of Literacy Skills. 8.Instruction and Second-Language Literacy [Peter V. Paul & Martha G. Gaustad]. Selection of Students and Teachers. Curricular and Instructional Issues. Use of ASL in Teaching English. ASL/English Bilingual Education: Some Considerations. 9.Literacy Assessment: Selected Issues. General Issues of Assessment. Assessment: Purpose and Use. A Few Assessment Issues Related to Deafness. Characteristics of Good Assessment Tools. Categories of Literacy Assessment. 10.Literacy, Literate Thought, and Deafness: A Brief Synthesis. Effects of Metatheory and Metatheorizing. Reciprocal Relation Between Conversational and Written Forms. Appendix A: Comprehension Questions and Challenge Questions. Appendix B: Suggested Books and Materials for Children and Adolescents. References. Index.

Effects of Bilingualism and Biliteracy on Children's Emerging Concepts of Print.

Abstract: Three groups of 4- and 5-year-old children were examined for their concepts of how print refers to language. All of the children could identify printed letters and their sounds but not read alone. The groups studied were monolingual speakers of English, bilingual speakers of French and English, and bilingual speakers of Chinese (Mandarin) and English. Bilingual children were equally proficient in both languages and were familiar with print and storybooks in both languages. The tasks assessed children's understanding of the general correspondence between print and language in which the printed form represents a word and the specific correspondence between a constituent of print and one of language that determines representation in a given writing system. The general correspondence relation applies to all writing systems, but the specific correspondence relation changes for different kinds of writing systems. Bilingual children understood better than monolingual children the general symbolic representation of print. The older Chinese-English bilingual children also showed advanced understanding of the specific correspondence relations in English print.

The Influence of Early Manual Communication on the Linguistic Development of Deaf Children.

Abstract: Part I I. INTRODUCTION Educators of the deaf for centuries have been preoccupied with the modes of communication in the classroom that will best serve the deaf student's education and general social adjustment. The concern of many has centered on whether a method of instruction that is strongly orientated to vocalization or a method of instruction that leans toward manual communication is most favorable to the deaf student. In brief, are deaf students best served by the "oral" or by the "simultaneous" method? Each position is logically defensible. The one maintains that the handicap is minimized with the attainment of functional speech, speechreading, and acoustic skills; the other maintains that for many students these skills are presently unattainable, so manual communication represents the best alternative. Controversy has centered primarily on the preadolescent and adolescent deaf student. The prevailing recommendation made to parents of the deaf infant and preschool child has been that they communicate orally with their deaf child, primarily to give him an awareness of language and basic vocal communication skills; yet rarely do the skills become highly developed at this age. Five percent or more of deaf children have deaf parents, many of whom routinely communicate manually in the home. The children of such parents acquire manual communication skills very much as the hearing child develops vocal communication skills. The effect of the communication system learned by any child, regardless of the communication mode, seems pronounced and permanent. Since manual communication (fingerspelling excepted) and vocalized language have little congruency, the child who learns manual communication early may have increased difficulty in shifting to the grammar and lexicon of the English language. On the other hand, the deaf child with early manual communication may have an increased awareness of the significance of language and concepts contingent on language, and an increased resource of knowledge and experiences facilitated by communication. Many teachers of the deaf, on the basis of their empirical information, relate the success of some deaf children in written language and reading to the fact that they have deaf parents who communicate manually in the home; the same teachers attribute poor development of speech and speechreading to the same observation. If, in fact, early manual communication influences the development of linguistic skills in deaf children, whether it be in a positive or an inhibiting direction, then the implication is clear that the establishment of a communication system in the deaf child before he enters school is pertinent to the linguistic success manifest while he is in school. The investigators wish to underscore two points at the outset of this report. First, this investigation was not designed to reveal information on the relative pedagogical merits of the various methods of communication employed in educational programs for deaf children. It limits itself to a study of the influence of a particular communication system learned by some deaf children before they enter school. Second, it is recognized that manual communication might not be the only functional communication system a deaf child can learn before entering school. It may be that children can be taught to vocalize and speechread language with such skill that these communication media become highly functional very early in life. Manual communication was isolated as an independent variable because young deaf children do learn this method of communication with reasonable ease and without formal tutoring. The investigators would encourage additional research on subjects who develop a systematic communication system through speech and speechreading or through fingerspelling alone. Indeed, such research is currently being conducted by other investigators. III. PROBLEM Definitions The term manual communication refers to the systematic use of manually produced symbols and signs to convey and receive information. …

Language Proficiency and Academic Success: Relationships Between Proficiency in Two Langauges and Achievement Among Mexican American Students

Abstract: While considerable research has focused on second language development and academic success, the debate continues on how the development of the first language benefits the acquisition of the second. The intent of the present study was to examine the strength of the relation among proficiency in English and Spanish and academic success. Relations among oral language, literacy, and academic achievement were examined. A significant connection was found between proficiency in English and standardized achievement scores, as well as grade point averages. Similarly, the results reveal significant correlations between reading and writing in Spanish and achievement scores, as well as grade point average. The strongest relations were found between Written Language and academic success.

A Reevaluation of the Uniqueness of Japanese Written Discourse: Implications for Contrastive Rhetoric

Abstract: According to contrastive rhetoric research, Japanese expository prose is characterized by a classical style (ki-sho-ten-ketsu), reader responsibility, and an inductive style with a sudden topic shift. It is claimed that English readers have difficulty comprehending texts written by Japanese writers because of such culturally unique conventions. This article challenges these hypotheses concerning the uniqueness of Japanese texts. It argues that previous studies tend to view language and culture as exotic and static rather than dynamic, and overgeneralize the cultural characteristics from a few specific examples. Also, these characterizations of Japanese written discourse can be challenged by multiple interpretations of ki-sho-ten-ketsu offered by composition specialists in Japan and the linguistic and educational influences from the West on the development of modern Japanese since the mid-19th century. This article suggests that researchers and writing teachers should be wary of stereotyping cultural conve...

Consciência fonológica e linguagem escrita em pré-escolares

Abstract: This research aimed to study the relationship between phonological awareness and written language acquisition through a psychogenetic perspective. Participants were 55 preschool children of both sexes, between 4 and 6 years old. They were assessed with an instrument developed by the researcher. The results showed a positive and significant correlation between phonological awareness and literacy levels, especially for 5 and 6 years-old children. These levels were correlated positively with age and independent of the sex of the subjects. The results also pointed to the existence of different levels of phonological awareness, involving different degrees of complexity, which suggests the importance of pedagogic activities that aim to develop phonological awareness in preschool children.

Cultural Stereotyping and Intercultural Communication: Working with Students from the People's Republic of China in the UK

Abstract: This paper considers the problem of cultural stereotyping in work on intercultural communication. Recent interest in culture in relation to language learning is described, and the problematif the concept of culture is discussed. A recent study of Chinese students attitudes towards academic study is described and the results are presented of a small-scale attempt to test the geners findings: 12 Chinese visiting scholars were given the opportunity to reflect upon and respond in writing to some comments from the earlier study. It is concluded that Chinese attitudes to toc study are diverse. It is argued that the results support the view of culture as a contested area of discourse. It is suggested that ideas about Chinese culture should be set in historical coe historical description is given. Sources are quoted regarding the recent history of English language teaching in China. It is argued that communication problems may be more economically expls of aspects of language proficiency rather than cultural diff...

Language Awareness and the Autonomous Language Learner.

Abstract: This paper offers a language‐awareness perspective on the concept of autonomy in second language learning. The introductory section distinguishes between two kinds of language awareness and elaborates a working definition of learner autonomy. The second section looks at child development and the role played by both kinds of language awareness in first language acquisition. It considers in turn the importance of context in developmental learning, the role played by the growth of metalinguistic knowledge in first‐language acquisition, and the impact of literacy on first language development. The third section is concerned with the role played by both kinds of language awareness in second language pedagogy. It begins by reflecting on the shortcomings of the grammar‐translation approach, then suggests reasons for the relative failure of the so‐called communicative approach, and ends by proposing a reassessment of the role of writing in second language learning.

Two age of acquisition effects in the reading of Japanese Kanji

Abstract: Native speakers of Japanese were shown single-character Kanji words which they read aloud as quickly as possible. Simultaneous multiple regression was used to investigate which of a set of nine variables predicted reading speed. Two factors exerted strong independent effects upon reading speed—the age at which the words enter a Japanese child's spoken vocabulary and the age at which Japanese children learn the characters that are used to write those words. Of three measures of word frequency, only rated familiarity made a significant independent contribution. There were no significant effects of word imageability, the number of alternative pronunciations of a Kanji character, the visual complexity of a character, or the length of the spoken word. We suggest that the quality of lexical representations is affected by the age at which they are learned, and that the effects of age of spoken and written acquisition reflect the influence of those variables upon the speech output lexicon and the visual input lexicon respectively.

Second Language Acquisition of Spoken and Written English: Acquiring the Skeptron

Abstract: Research in second language acquisition (SLA) has been dominated by questions regarding the psychological processes of language learning, with less concern for the wider social context, the power relations within the context, and their effect on the psychological variables. This article draws on Peirce's (1995) concept of investment, arguing that it can be usefully broken down into investment in discourses. It also draws on and extends Peirce's use of Bourdieu's (1991) notions of legitimate language, arguing that not only do subject positions, and thus the ability to claim the right to speak, change over time, but they can change within one encounter. To illustrate the importance of these concepts, I analyse the interaction between myself and a student in an interview, as a language learning situation, during which the power relationships shift significantly because of a change of topic (the skeptron changes hands). This shift occurs because of the wider political context and affects the nature of the interaction and thus SLA. The analysis of the interview data and pieces of writing also demonstrates the student's investment in prior discourses and the way they hinder and facilitate his acquisition of written academic discourse, as his approach to academic writing is powerfully shaped by the meanings and function writing had held for him as a political prisoner in an apartheid South Africa. The article includes a brief discussion of the implications for the L2 classroom.

A Study of the Use of a Monolingual Pedagogical Dictionary by Learners of English Engaged in Writing

Abstract: This paper is an account of a study of the role played by a dictionary (in this case, the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary (1987) ) in the completion of written (encoding) tasks by learners of English as a foreign language. The study uses an introspective methodology based on the completion of flowcharts. The results highlight, in particular, the importance of information on spelling and meaning and the central role accorded to the examples for obtaining a wide variety of information, notably on meaning, grammar, and register. COBUILD's full-sentence definitions together with its real examples are revealed to be of considerable use to learners. On the other hand, coded syntactic information in the dictionary is largely neglected by learners. Implications for lexicographers and for language teaching and learning are considered.

The Elements of Foreign Language Teaching

Abstract: Part 1 The substance or structure of language: section 1 vocabulary - linguistic perspectives, learning vocabulary - implications for teaching, teaching vocabulary at different stages section 2 grammar - the grammar controversy, French grammar, German grammar, the learning of grammar in L1 and L2 as a cognitive skill, other theories of language learning, teaching different kinds of grammar rules in French and German section 3 - pronunciation - learning pronunciation, the pronunciation of French teaching the pronunciation of French the pronunciation of German teaching the pronunciation of German. Part 2 Modes of communication - the four skills: understanding spoken language - the listening skill understanding written language - the reading skill producing language - the speaking skills producing language - the writing skill. Part 3 Educational perspectives: the contributions of foreign language study to education at school.

Affect and letter-writing: Unconventional conventions in casual writing by young Japanese women

Abstract: With special attention to the use of unconventional practices and pictorial signs in casual letter writing, this article shows how young Japanese women effectively exploit affect-laden shape, form, and function in order to establish intimate and solidary relationships. They rely on both conventional and unconventional aspects of Japanese orthography, encoding affect specific to the given context and merging spoken with written modes of self-representation. In so doing, they seem to draw on diverse “frames” of written language, and to manipulate symbolic means of association and integration for achieving reciprocity. These features not only provide the basis for reciprocity, but may also suggest a new mode of literacy caused by social change. (Writing, literacy, affect, Japanese, pictorial signs, letter-writing)

Writing development : an interdisciplinary view

Abstract: 1. Studying writing and writing acquisition today: A multidisciplinary view 2. Part I: Writing and literacy acquisition: Links between linguistics and psycholinguistics 3. 1. On the relations between speech and writing (by Olson, David R.) 4. 2. The Unit of Written and Oral Language (by Blanche-Benveniste, Claire) 5. 3. The Word out of (Conceptual) Context (by Ferreiro, Emilia) 6. 4. Presschool Knowledge of Language: What Five year olds Know about Language Structue and Language Use (by Berman, Ruth A.) 7. 5. Explicit Word Segmentation and Writing in Hebrew and Spanish (by Tolchinsky, Liliana) 8. Part II: Writing and reading in time and culture 9. 6. Orality/ Literacy, Languages and Alphabets. Examples from Jewish Cultures (by Sirat, Colette) 10. 7. The Notion of Orthography. A Latin Inheritance (by Desbordes, Francoise) 11. 8. Aspects of a History of Written Language Processing. Examples from the Roman world and the early Middle Ages (by Guenther, Hartmut) 12. 9. Orality in Literate Cultures (by Koch, Peter) 13. 10. The Graphic Space of the School Exercise Books in France in the 19th-20th century (by Hebrard, Jean) 14. Part III: Written language competence in monolingual and bilingual contexts 15. 11. Production and Comprehension of Connectives in the Written Modality. A Study of Written French (by Fayol, Michel) 16. 12. Towards a Better Understanding of Biliteracy (by Luedi, Georges) 17. 13. Acquisition of Literacy by Immigrant Children (by Verhoeven, Ludo) 18. Part IV: Writing systems, brain structures and languages: a neurolinguistic view 19. 14. Domain-Specificity and Fractionability of Neuropsychological Processes in Literacy Acquisition (by Cossu, Giuseppe) 20. 15. Reading difficulties among English and German Children. Same Cause - Different Manifestation (by Wimmer, Heinz) 21. 16. Neural Organisation and Writing Systems (by Butterworth, Brian) 22. Bibliographic references 23. Analytic index

Cultural Meaning and Contrastive Rhetoric in English Education

Abstract: The focus of this paper is on one aspect of the relationship between language and culture, that of cultural meaning and rhetorical style in writing across traditions of literacy. The paper adopts the approach of ‘socially realistic linguistics’ (Labov, 1972: xiii) and questions the assumptions of contrastive rhetoric in the context of English education around the world. It proposes a methodology of contrastive rhetorical research, based on Halliday’s notion of ‘meaning potential’ (Halliday, 1978), which takes into account the evidence provided by research on writing in the Inner Circle, language socialization, traditions of literacy, and writing in the multilingual and multicultural context of the Outer Circle (B. Kachru, 1985). Finally, it points out the educational implications of the suggested approach to contrastive rhetoric for enriching the writing experience of all users of English, whether they come from the Inner, Outer, or Expanding Circle of English.

Cross-language studies of learning to read and spell. Phonologic and orthographic processing

Abstract: Preface. Introduction: 1. Relating Phonologic and Orthographic Processing to Learning to Read and Spell Che Kan Leong, R.M. Joshi. English: 2. Toward an Understanding of Phonological Awareness H.W. Catts, et al. 3. The Nature of the Phonological Deficit Underlying Disorders of Spoken and Written Language B. Dodd, G. Gillon. 4. Case Studies of Dyslexia: Young Readers with Rapid Serial Naming Deficits J.K. Uhry. 5. The Relationship of Central Auditory Processing Disorder and Learning Problems S. Schwartz, M. Bruck. 6. Beginning Reading in Germany and the U.S.: A Comparison of Phonological Segmentation, Decoding, Lexical Access and Comprehension J.C. Naslund, et al. German: 7. Word Recognition in English and German Dyslexics: A Direct Comparison K. Landerl. 8. The Early Prediction of Reading and Spelling: Evidence From the Munich Longitudinal Study on the Genesis of Individual Competencies W. Schneider, J.C. Naslund. 9. Cultural Influences on Literacy Development G. Mannhaupt, et al. 10. Strategies of Spelling and Reading of Young Children Learning German Orthography R. Valtin. Dutch: 11. Reading Development in Elementary School: Do Syllables Play a Role in Phonological Decoding? H.W.M.J. Wentink, et al. 12. How to Get Friends in Beginning Word Recognition P. Reitsma. 13. Visual Processes in Word Recognition by Poor Readers: Relative Use of Visual, Phonological, and Orthographic Cues E.M.H. Assink. 14. Reading and Spelling in Dutch First and Second Graders: Do They Use an OrthographicStrategy? M.J.W.L. Coenen, et al. 15. Measuring Word Identification Skills and Related Variables in Dutch Children K.P. van den Bos, H.C.L. Spelberg. Nordic Languages: 16. Early Language Development and Kindergarten Phonological Awareness as Predictors of Reading Problems: from 3 to 8 Years of Age S.-A.H. Lyster. 18. What Can Be Learned About Reading Acquisition in the Finnish Language R.-L. Korkeamaki. Chinese: 19. Phonological Awareness and Learning to Read Chinese J.R. Hanley, H.S. Huang. 20. Paradigmatic Analysis of Chinese Word Reading: Research Findings and Classroom Practices Che Kan Leong. Author Index.

Case Study Methods in Researching Language and Education

Abstract: Case study research stems from a special interest in individual cases (Stake, 1994) In the field of language and education, case study methods of research have produced some important discoveries about (1) how children and adolescents learn oral and written language; (2) how language teachers draw on perspectives and assumptions to inform their practices, and (3) how what happens outside the classrooms in school settings interacts with the ways that children and adolescents learn and use oral and written language inside of classrooms

Future in Present-day English: corpus-based evidence on the rivalry of expressions

Abstract: This corpus-based study of the use of expressions of future in English has two aims: to examine how certain expressions of future are used in Present-day English, and to explore how electronic corpora can be exploited for linguistic study. The expressions focused on in this thesis are five auxiliary or semi-auxiliary verb phrases frequently discussed in studies of future reference in English: will, ’ll, shall, going to and gonna. The study examines the patterned ways in which the expressions are used in association with various linguistic and non-linguistic (or extra-linguistic) factors. The linguistic factors investigated are co-occurrence with particular words and co-occurrence with items of particular grammatical classes. The non-linguistic factors examined are medium (written vs. spoken), text category, speaker characteristics (age, sex, social class, etc.), region and time. The data for the study are exclusively drawn from computer-readable corpora of Present-day English. Corpus analyses are performed with automatic and interactive methods, and exploit both quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques.The study finds that the use of these expressions of future varies with a number of factors. Differences between spoken and written language are particularly prominent and usage also varies between different types of text, both within spoken and written corpora. Variation between groups of speakers is also attested. Although the linguistic co-occurrence patterns are similar to some degree, there are nonetheless differences in the collocational patterns in which the expressions are used. Methodological issues related to corpus-based studies in general are discussed in the light of the insights gained from this study of expressions of future.

Understanding Children and Adolescents

Abstract: All chapters close with 'Chapter Summary,' Key Points,' Key Terms,' and 'Suggestions for Further Reading.' I.RESEARCH, THEORY, AND BIOLOGY. 1.Theories of Child Development. Maturational Theory. Psychoanalytic Theory. Learning Theory. Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Jean Piaget. Sociocultural Theory: Lev Vygotsky. The Developmental Systems or Contextual Approach. Theory, Research, and Values: Why Contradictions Exist. 2.Methods of Studying Children. Thinking Like a Researcher: A Kindergarten Literacy Program. Interpreting a Research Report: The Major Research Questions. The Major Research Methods. The Major Research Designs: Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal. Selecting a Suitable Research Method. Tying Things Together. 3.Genetics, Prenatal Development and Birth. Genetics, Biological Inheritance. Genetics and the Environment. Prenatal Development: Life in the Womb. Birth: Transition to Life in the Outer World. Problems of Early Development: When Things Go Wrong. Prenatal Diagnosis and Genetic Counseling. II.INFANTS AND TODDLERS. 4.The Neonate. Physical Characteristics. Motor Capabilities. Behavioral States. Sensory Abilities. Learning. The Premature Baby. Assessing the Newborn. 5.Physical Development in Infants and Toddlers. How Do They Grow? Development of Motor Abilities. 6.Cognitive Development in Infants and Toddlers. Infant Visual Perception. Sensorimotor Intelligence: Piagets Studies of Infants and Toddlers. Cognitive Development and Play. 7.The Development of Language and Communication in Infants and Toddlers. Communication and Language Development during the Infants First Year. Language Development during the Infants Second Year. Language Use: The Social Context of Language Learning. Theories of Language Development. 8.Social and Emotional Development in Infants and Toddlers. Attachment. The Emergence of Prosocial Behavior. Baby to Baby: Peer Interaction among Infants and Toddlers. Sex-Role Stereotyping in Infancy. III.PRESCHOOL CHILDREN. 9.Physical Development in Preschool Children. Appearance and Growth. Motor Development. 10.Cognitive Development in Preschool Children. Piagets Research on Preschool Childrens Thinking. Cognitive Development in Preschool Children: Beyond Piaget. 11.Development of Language and Communication in Preschool Children. Oral Language Development. Written Language Development. 12.Social and Emotional Development in Preschool Children. An Overview of Socialization and Early Moral Development. Socialization in the Family during Childhood. Socialization Processes. Aggression: How It is Learned, How It is Controlled. Prosocial Behavior. Learning Self-Control. IV.SCHOOL-AGE CHILDREN. 13.Physical Development in School-Age Children. How Do They Grow? 14.Cognitive Development in School-Age Children. From Preoperational to Concrete Operational Thinking. Metacognition. Information-Processing and Cognitive Development. Social Interaction and Cognitive Development. Defining and Assessing Intelligence. Achievement Tests. Academic Motivation and Success in School. 15.The Development of Language and Communication in the School-Age Child. Oral Language. Written Language (Literacy) Development. 16.Social and Emotional Development in School-Age Children. Social Cognition (Social Role-Taking Ability). Moral Reasoning. Social Skills and Sociometric Status. Gender Differences and Gender-Role Development. V.ADOLESCENTS. 17.Physical Development in Adolescence. Physical Growth. Sexual Maturation and Behavior. Sexual Attitudes and Behavior. Motor Development and Skills. 18.Cognitive Development in Adolescents. Formal Operational Thinking. An Information-Processing View of Adolescent Thinking. Other Dimensions of Adolescent Thinking. 19.Language Development in Adolescents. Cognitive Underpinnings of the Adolescents Language Advances. Oral Language Development. Learning a Second Language During Adolescence. Written Language Development. 20.Social and Emotional Development in Adolescents. Relationships with Family: The Quest for Independence. Relationships with Peers: The Quest to Belong. Knowing the Self: The Quest for Identity. Sexual Behavior: The Quest for Intimacy. Problems in Adolescents. Positive Aspects of Adolescent Behavior. References. Author Index. Subject Index. Credits.