Combustion of fuels to generate energy is integral to various human activities, both domestic and industrial. However, the predominance of hydrocarbon fuel usage produces emissions containing pollutants that cause multiple environmental complications and risks to human health. Therefore, replacement of conventional fuels to achieve zero carbon emission is of utmost importance. In terms of carbon-free fuel, ammonia offers several advantages over hydrogen. However, its low burning velocity and high fuel NOx emissions inhibit large-scale usage. Hence, hydrogen and methane have been studied in this review as possible secondary fuels to aid ammonia combustion and address the aforementioned issues. This review starts from the suitability of ammonia fuel as energy vector in terms of physicochemical and combustion characteristics, moving through the kinetics and mechanisms of ammonia-based and ammonia-fuel combustion. The impacts and limitations of each system are also addressed, thus providing a comparison on each system. Particularly, this review assesses and discusses the advantages and mechanisms involved with secondary fuel addition to the ammonia combustion, presenting the role of key reaction differences and the change in key reaction mechanism under different conditions at the level of reaction mechanisms. Finally, this review covers future perspectives and challenges on the usage and development of ammonia-based fuels, emphasizing the maturity of ammonia-based and ammonia-fuel combustion kinetics. Herein, this work summarizes the principles of the combustion reactions of ammonia-based and ammonia-fuel systematically and serves as a theoretical reference of ammonia-fuel combustion kinetics for transitioning into future practical applications where ammonia is an important energy vector.

A review on ammonia, ammonia-hydrogen and ammonia-methane fuels

Advancements of combustion technologies in the ammonia-fuelled engines

Microalgae and ammonia: A review on inter-relationship

Ammonia (NH3), as a carbon-free fuel with a high hydrogen content, has been considered as a promising candidate to be applied for transportation, propulsion, and power generation sectors. However, due to the presence of nitrogen atoms, direct combustion of NH3 features a high NOx emission, which could hinder its wide application. Thus it is important to mitigate or minimize these emissions. For this, a three-dimensional (3D) computational model is developed by considering a detailed chemical-kinetic mechanism. The effects of 1) the perforated plate porosity σ , 2) the perforated plate thickness t1, 3) the perforated orifice off-z axis distance d, and 4) inlet thermodynamic pressure Pin are evaluated. Numerical results indicate that σ plays an important role in determining the NO formation. This is the combined effect of the strong species preferential diffusion and low flame temperature within the recirculation zone. Furthermore, varying t1 is shown to affect the NO generation rate due to the varied recirculation zone. Although the flow field is affected by d to some degree, it has a negligible effect on the NO generation. Finally, the emission behavior is found to have a strong dependence on Pin. Approximately 50% reduction of NO emission is achieved as the inlet pressure is varied from 1 to 3 atm. The present work opens up an applicable way to enable low-NOx ammonia-fueled power systems, and some of the findings could be applied for hydrocarbon systems design.

Evaluation of NOx emissions characteristics in a CO2-Free micro-power system by implementing a perforated plate

As a fueling vector, ammonia is gaining more interest for future power generation, transportation and heating systems. Compared to typical hydrocarbons, ammonia's low reactivity characteristics and higher NOx emissions limit its practical implementation. However, the current need for decarbonization of the energy sector puts ammonia as an energy vector and carrier at the far front, making overcoming the challenges of ammonia utilization necessary. In late 2018, Kobayashi et al. presented a review article on the science and technology of ammonia combustion. In continuing their effort, this review is aimed towards giving the most recent updates in ammonia combustion. The article starts with the importance of ammonia as an energy carrier and covers the fundamentals of ammonia combustion. We then present recent activities for addressing the low ammonia reactivity and its impact on NOx emissions. In addition, the chemical kinetics of ammonia oxidation is presented through a discussion of recently proposed chemical kinetics mechanisms. This section emphasizes the role of crucial reaction differences, the updates in the NOx and De-NOx pathways, NHi recombination reactions and H2NO chemistry. Towards utilising ammonia in gas turbines and industrial applications, this review discusses recent efforts and various NO mitigation strategies. This work systematically summarizes the fundamentals of ammonia-based combustion and its application. It serves as a reference for the transition of ammonia into future practical applications. 

Review on the Recent Advances on Ammonia Combustion from the Fundamentals to the Applications

Ammonia, a molecule that is gaining more interest as a fueling vector, has been considered as a candidate to power transport, produce energy, and support heating applications for decades. However, the particular characteristics of the molecule always made it a chemical with low, if any, benefit once compared to conventional fossil fuels. Still, the current need to decarbonize our economy makes the search of new methods crucial to use chemicals, such as ammonia, that can be produced and employed without incurring in the emission of carbon oxides. Therefore, current efforts in this field are leading scientists, industries, and governments to seriously invest efforts in the development of holistic solutions capable of making ammonia a viable fuel for the transition toward a clean future. On that basis, this review has approached the subject gathering inputs from scientists actively working on the topic. The review starts from the importance of ammonia as an energy vector, moving through all of the steps in the production, distribution, utilization, safety, legal considerations, and economic aspects of the use of such a molecule to support the future energy mix. Fundamentals of combustion and practical cases for the recovery of energy of ammonia are also addressed, thus providing a complete view of what potentially could become a vector of crucial importance to the mitigation of carbon emissions. Different from other works, this review seeks to provide a holistic perspective of ammonia as a chemical that presents benefits and constraints for storing energy from sustainable sources. State-of-the-art knowledge provided by academics actively engaged with the topic at various fronts also enables a clear vision of the progress in each of the branches of ammonia as an energy carrier. Further, the fundamental boundaries of the use of the molecule are expanded to real technical issues for all potential technologies capable of using it for energy purposes, legal barriers that will be faced to achieve its deployment, safety and environmental considerations that impose a critical aspect for acceptance and wellbeing, and economic implications for the use of ammonia across all aspects approached for the production and implementation of this chemical as a fueling source. Herein, this work sets the principles, research, practicalities, and future views of a transition toward a future where ammonia will be a major energy player.

/pdf/review-on-ammonia-as-a-potential-fuel-from-synthesis-to-2yotwki372.pdf

Review on ammonia as a potential fuel: from synthesis to economics

Implant loosening, catastrophic failure of the bone-screw interface, material migration, and loss of stability of the fixation component assembly constitute a serious complication in adult spinal surgery. The contribution of biomechanics is based on experimental measurement and simulation of transpedicular spinal fixations. The cortical insertion trajectory showed an increase in the resistance of the screw-bone interface with respect to the pedicle insertion trajectory, both for axial traction forces to the screw and for stress distribution in the vertebra. The double-threaded screws and standard pedicle screws had similar strength. Partially threaded screws with four-thread showed better resistance to fatigue in terms of a higher failure load and number of cycles to fail. Cement or hydroxyapatite augmented screws with also showed a better fatigue resistance in osteoporotic vertebrae. Rigid segment simulations confirmed the presence of higher stresses on the intervertebral discs causing damage to adjacent segments. The posterior body of the vertebra may be subjected to high stresses, in the bone-screw interface, being this bone region more susceptible to failure.

[Biomechanics of the bone-screw interface in transpedicular spinal instrumentation].

One of the correction methods of children’s flat foot is calcaneal insertion. The purpose of this work is to determine the performance of calcaneal stop by using two bioco MPatible materials. The Finite Element Method (FEM) is used. The material analysis is AISI 316L steel and Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy. Using Cuban anthropometric models, loads were calculated based on foot biomechanics and body weight of boys and girls aged 10 and 12. The results show that the implant model ensures the mechanical strength of the two materials. The difference between the two stresses is 4.44 MPa, accounting for 5% of the difference. Both materials have sufficient mechanical strength reserves because the maximum stress is less than the elastic limit of the material and ensures the mechanical strength of the calcaneal stop design.

/pdf/simulation-study-of-calcaneal-insertion-in-the-treatment-of-3h4syqy5.pdf

A. Ortiz-Prado

Papers

Review on ammonia as a potential fuel: from synthesis to economics

[Biomechanics of the bone-screw interface in transpedicular spinal instrumentation].

Simulation study of calcaneal insertion in the treatment of children’s flat foot