The theory of affordances

The mathematics of coordinated control of prosthetic arms and manipulators.

Recent technological advances in hardware design of the robotic platforms enabled the implementation of various control modalities for improved interactions with humans and unstructured environments. An important application area for the integration of robots with such advanced interaction capabilities is human---robot collaboration. This aspect represents high socio-economic impacts and maintains the sense of purpose of the involved people, as the robots do not completely replace the humans from the work process. The research community's recent surge of interest in this area has been devoted to the implementation of various methodologies to achieve intuitive and seamless human---robot-environment interactions by incorporating the collaborative partners' superior capabilities, e.g. human's cognitive and robot's physical power generation capacity. In fact, the main purpose of this paper is to review the state-of-the-art on intermediate human---robot interfaces (bi-directional), robot control modalities, system stability, benchmarking and relevant use cases, and to extend views on the required future developments in the realm of human---robot collaboration.

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Progress and prospects of the human---robot collaboration

This paper introduces ANYmal, a quadrupedal robot that features outstanding mobility and dynamic motion capability. Thanks to novel, compliant joint modules with integrated electronics, the 30 kg, 0.5m tall robotic dog is torque controllable and very robust against impulsive loads during running or jumping. The presented machine was designed with a focus on outdoor suitability, simple maintenance, and user-friendly handling to enable future operation in real world scenarios. Performance tests with the joint actuators indicated a torque control bandwidth of more than 70 Hz, high disturbance rejection capability, as well as impact robustness when moving with maximal velocity. It is demonstrated in a series of experiments that ANYmal can execute walking gaits, dynamically trot at moderate speed, and is able to perform special maneuvers to stand up or crawl very steep stairs. Detailed measurements unveil that even full-speed running requires less than 280W, resulting in an autonomy of more than 2 h.

ANYmal - a highly mobile and dynamic quadrupedal robot

This paper introduces a new robust, dynamic quadruped, the MIT Cheetah 3. Like its predecessor, the Cheetah 3 exploits tailored mechanical design to enable simple control strategies for dynamic locomotion and features high-bandwidth proprioceptive actuators to manage physical interaction with the environment. A new leg design is presented that includes proprioceptive actuation on the abduction/adduction degrees of freedom in addition to an expanded range of motion on the hips and knees. To make full use of these new capabilities, general balance and locomotion controllers for Cheetah 3 are presented. These controllers are embedded into a modular control architecture that allows the robot to handle unexpected terrain disturbances through reactive gait modification and without the need for external sensors or prior environment knowledge. The efficiency of the robot is demonstrated by a low Cost of Transport (CoT) over multiple gaits at moderate speeds, with the lowest CoT of 0.45 found during trotting. Experiments showcase the ability to blindly climb up stairs as a result of the full system integration. These results collectively represent a promising step toward a platform capable of generalized dynamic legged locomotion.

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MIT Cheetah 3: Design and Control of a Robust, Dynamic Quadruped Robot

In December 2013, 16 teams from around the world gathered at Homestead Speedway near Miami, FL to participate in the DARPA Robotics Challenge DRC Trials, an aggressive robotics competition partly inspired by the aftermath of the Fukushima Daiichi reactor incident. While the focus of the DRC Trials is to advance robotics for use in austere and inhospitable environments, the objectives of the DRC are to progress the areas of supervised autonomy and mobile manipulation for everyday robotics. NASA's Johnson Space Center led a team comprised of numerous partners to develop Valkyrie, NASA's first bipedal humanoid robot. Valkyrie is a 44 degree-of-freedom, series elastic actuator-based robot that draws upon over 18 years of humanoid robotics design heritage. Valkyrie's application intent is aimed at not only responding to events like Fukushima, but also advancing human spaceflight endeavors in extraterrestrial planetary settings. This paper presents a brief system overview, detailing Valkyrie's mechatronic subsystems, followed by a summarization of the inverse kinematics-based walking algorithm employed at the Trials. Next, the software and control architectures are highlighted along with a description of the operator interface tools. Finally, some closing remarks are given about the competition, and a vision of future work is provided.

A. Stuart Donnan

Papers

Valkyrie: NASA's First Bipedal Humanoid Robot