This meta-analysis reviews 208 laboratory studies of acute psychological stressors and tests a theoretical model delineating conditions capable of eliciting cortisol responses. Psychological stressors increased cortisol levels; however, effects varied widely across tasks. Consistent with the theoretical model, motivated performance tasks elicited cortisol responses if they were uncontrollable or characterized by social-evaluative threat (task performance could be negatively judged by others), when methodological factors and other stressor characteristics were controlled for. Tasks containing both uncontrollable and social-evaluative elements were associated with the largest cortisol and adrenocorticotropin hormone changes and the longest times to recovery. These findings are consistent with the animal literature on the physiological effects of uncontrollable social threat and contradict the belief that cortisol is responsive to all types of stressors.

http://anthro.vancouver.wsu.edu/media/Course_files/anth-260-edward-h-hagen/acute-stressors-and-cortisol-responses-a-theoretical-integration-and-synthesis-of-laboratory-research-1.pdf

Acute stressors and cortisol responses: a theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research.

https://bic.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/Rossi_09_TMS%20safety%20review.pdf

Safety, ethical considerations, and application guidelines for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in clinical practice and research

The detection of psychiatric illness by questionnaire

http://www.smhc.org.cn/uploadfiles/2014/09/20140929090442442.pdf

A Meta-Analysis of Cytokines in Major Depression

Emotion and Adaptation

Effect of aromatic amino acids, pentylenetetrazole and yohimbine on isatin and tribulin activity in rat brain.

Oral administration of butaperazine (40 mg per kilogram) to rats increased dopamine turnover, as measured by elevation of striatal and mesolimbic concentrations of homovanillic acid and 3,4-dihydroxyphen-ylacetic acid, for 24 to 48 hours. Initially, this dose of butaperazine inhibited stereotyped behavior in response to subcutaneous administration of apomorphine, but this effect was reversed at 12 hours. Later, animals had normal or exaggerated responses to apomorphine. The data suggest that at the critical 20- to 28-hour period after butaperazine administration, when most human acute dystonic reactions occur, normal or supersensitive cerebral dopamine receptors are exposed to an excessive synaptic release of dopamine. This may be responsible for the drug-induced dystonia.

Neuroleptic‐induced acute dystonic reactions may be due to enhanced dopamine release on to supersensitive postsynaptic receptors

Post-awakening cortisol secretion during basic military training.

The effect of pergolide and MDL 72974 on rat brain CuZn superoxide dismutase

Publisher Summary Mood can be modulated by inflammatory cytokines, corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), and cortisol. In parallel, inflammatory cytokines can modulate neuroendocrine function and vice versa. Under normal circumstances, the homeostatic regulation of the interaction among these factors is finely tuned and adaptive for survival. However, when one system becomes dysregulated the others are affected. Major depression is characterized by reduced natural killer (NK) cell activity, increased production of T helper-1 (Th1) and pro-inflammatory cytokines, and stimulation of the acute-phase response as well as increased CRF and cortisol. The origin of this physiologically maladaptive milieu may be either prolonged inflammatory illness (or immune dysregulation that mimics inflammatory illness) or chronic uncontrollable stress. This is possible as both pro-inflammatory cytokines and psychological stress activate the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis response system. Repeated activation of this system, by either route, induces desensitization of the regulatory negative feedback receptors in the brain, pituitary gland, and lymphocytes. Once the capacity for regulation is lost, the elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines, CRF, and cortisol can prevail, all of which can have a negative influence on mood.

Angela Clow

Papers

Effect of aromatic amino acids, pentylenetetrazole and yohimbine on isatin and tribulin activity in rat brain.

Neuroleptic‐induced acute dystonic reactions may be due to enhanced dopamine release on to supersensitive postsynaptic receptors

Post-awakening cortisol secretion during basic military training.

The effect of pergolide and MDL 72974 on rat brain CuZn superoxide dismutase

Cytokines and depression