抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

Graphene’s success has shown that it is possible to create stable, single and few-atom-thick layers of van der Waals materials, and also that these materials can exhibit fascinating and technologically useful properties. Here we review the state-of-the-art of 2D materials beyond graphene. Initially, we will outline the different chemical classes of 2D materials and discuss the various strategies to prepare single-layer, few-layer, and multilayer assembly materials in solution, on substrates, and on the wafer scale. Additionally, we present an experimental guide for identifying and characterizing single-layer-thick materials, as well as outlining emerging techniques that yield both local and global information. We describe the differences that occur in the electronic structure between the bulk and the single layer and discuss various methods of tuning their electronic properties by manipulating the surface. Finally, we highlight the properties and advantages of single-, few-, and many-layer 2D materials in...

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Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities in Two-Dimensional Materials Beyond Graphene

Graphene is very popular because of its many fascinating properties, but its lack of an electronic bandgap has stimulated the search for 2D materials with semiconducting character. Transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs), which are semiconductors of the type MX2, where M is a transition metal atom (such as Mo or W) and X is a chalcogen atom (such as S, Se or Te), provide a promising alternative. Because of its robustness, MoS2 is the most studied material in this family. TMDCs exhibit a unique combination of atomic-scale thickness, direct bandgap, strong spin–orbit coupling and favourable electronic and mechanical properties, which make them interesting for fundamental studies and for applications in high-end electronics, spintronics, optoelectronics, energy harvesting, flexible electronics, DNA sequencing and personalized medicine. In this Review, the methods used to synthesize TMDCs are examined and their properties are discussed, with particular attention to their charge density wave, superconductive and topological phases. The use of TMCDs in nanoelectronic devices is also explored, along with strategies to improve charge carrier mobility, high frequency operation and the use of strain engineering to tailor their properties. Two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) exhibit attractive electronic and mechanical properties. In this Review, the charge density wave, superconductive and topological phases of TMCDs are discussed, along with their synthesis and applications in devices with enhanced mobility and with the use of strain engineering to improve their properties.

2D transition metal dichalcogenides

We present the science and technology roadmap for graphene, related two-dimensional crystals, and hybrid systems, targeting an evolution in technology, that might lead to impacts and benefits reaching into most areas of society. This roadmap was developed within the framework of the European Graphene Flagship and outlines the main targets and research areas as best understood at the start of this ambitious project. We provide an overview of the key aspects of graphene and related materials (GRMs), ranging from fundamental research challenges to a variety of applications in a large number of sectors, highlighting the steps necessary to take GRMs from a state of raw potential to a point where they might revolutionize multiple industries. We also define an extensive list of acronyms in an effort to standardize the nomenclature in this emerging field.

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Science and technology roadmap for graphene, related two-dimensional crystals, and hybrid systems

The isolation of various two-dimensional (2D) materials, and the possibility to combine them in vertical stacks, has created a new paradigm in materials science: heterostructures based on 2D crystals. Such a concept has already proven fruitful for a number of electronic applications in the area of ultrathin and flexible devices. Here, we expand the range of such structures to photoactive ones by using semiconducting transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs)/graphene stacks. Van Hove singularities in the electronic density of states of TMDC guarantees enhanced light-matter interactions, leading to enhanced photon absorption and electron-hole creation (which are collected in transparent graphene electrodes). This allows development of extremely efficient flexible photovoltaic devices with photoresponsivity above 0.1 ampere per watt (corresponding to an external quantum efficiency of above 30%).

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Strong light-matter interactions in heterostructures of atomically thin films.

We report first principles calculations of the electronic structure of monolayer 1H-MX2 (M = Mo, W; X = S, Se, Te), using the pseudopotential and numerical atomic orbital basis sets based methods within the local density approximation. Electronic band structure and density of states calculations found that the states around the Fermi energy are mainly due to metal d states. From partial density of states we find a strong hybridisation between metal d and chalcogen p states below the Fermi energy. All studied compounds in this work have emerged as new direct band gap semiconductors. The electronic band gap is found to decrease as one goes from sulphides to the tellurides of both Mo and W. Reducing the slab thickness systematically from bulk to monolayers causes a blue shift in the band gap energies, resulting in tunability of the electronic band gap. The magnitudes of the blue shift in the band gap energies are found to be 1.14 eV, 1.16 eV, 0.78 eV, 0.64, 0.57 eV and 0.37 eV for MoS2, WS2, MoSe2, WSe2, MoTe2 and WTe2, respectively, as we go from bulk phase (indirect band gap) to monolayer limit (direct band gap). This tunability in the electronic band gap and transitions from indirect to direct band make these materials potential candidates for the fabrication of optoelectronic devices.

Electronic structure of transition metal dichalcogenides monolayers 1H-MX2 (M = Mo, W; X = S, Se, Te) from ab-initio theory: new direct band gap semiconductors

The first principle calculations have been performed to study the influence of number of layers on the dielectric properties of dichalcogenides of Mo and W for in-plan ( E ⊥ c ) as well as out-of-plan polarization ( E ∥ c ) . We have taken bulk, mono, bi, four and 6-layer setup for this study. The EELS shows significant red shift in the energies of π plasmons, while prominent red shift has been found for the energies of ( π + σ ) plasmons of all the studied materials by reducing the number of layers from bulk to monolayer limit. The ϵ s has been found to red shifted by 62.5% (66.3%), 48.5% (62.1%), 52.7% (66.2%), 61.7% (64.6%), 61.5% (66.7%) and 62.5% (70.5%) from bulk values of MoS2, MoSe2, MoTe2, WS2, WSe2, WTe2 respectively for E ⊥ c ( E ∥ c ) as one goes from bulk to monolayer of these materials. The interband transitions are found to remain independent of the number of layers, however their intensity decreases with decrease in the number of layers. The dielectric functions are highly anisotropic in low energy range and becomes isotropic in high energy range.

Tunable dielectric response of transition metals dichalcogenides MX2 (M=Mo, W; X=S, Se, Te): Effect of quantum confinement

A first principle Comparative study of electronic and optical properties of 1H – MoS2 and 2H – MoS2

2D layered transition metal dichalcogenides (MoS2): Synthesis, applications and theoretical aspects

Mechanical strain induced tunability in two-dimensional (2D) honeycomb structures of MoX2 (X=S, Se, Te) with a focus on dielectric properties have been investigated in the framework of density functional theory. Mechanical strains reduce the band gap of considered semiconductors by causing a direct-to-indirect band gap transitions and finally rendering them into metal at critical value depending on the types of applied strain. The ultimate tensile strength estimated for MoS2, MoSe2 and MoTe2 monolayers is ∼ 7 GPa , ∼ 6 GPa and ∼ 5 GPa respectively. Band-gap deformation potentials have been found to posses strong dependence on the types of applied strain. Small tensile strains increases the exciton binding energies which can have importance in the applications of optoelectronics. Dielectric properties too get influenced by the type of applied strain as well as the type of material. Imaginary part of dielectric function ( ϵ 2 ) shows redshift in the structure peak energy on the application of strains with significant dependence on the types of applied strain. Static dielectric constant ( ϵ s ) has been found to increase with the increase of tensile strains (both uniaxial and biaxial) and asymmetric biaxial strain. On the other hand, ϵ s decreases for smaller magnitude of compression strains and show increase at higher magnitude. The change in the magnitude of ϵ s particularly for compression strains remain material specific.

Ashok Kumar

Papers

Electronic structure of transition metal dichalcogenides monolayers 1H-MX2 (M = Mo, W; X = S, Se, Te) from ab-initio theory: new direct band gap semiconductors

Tunable dielectric response of transition metals dichalcogenides MX2 (M=Mo, W; X=S, Se, Te): Effect of quantum confinement

A first principle Comparative study of electronic and optical properties of 1H – MoS2 and 2H – MoS2

2D layered transition metal dichalcogenides (MoS2): Synthesis, applications and theoretical aspects

Mechanical strain dependent electronic and dielectric properties of two-dimensional honeycomb structures of MoX2 (X¼S, Se, Te)