The electric vehicle (EV) technology addresses the issue of the reduction of carbon and greenhouse gas emissions. The concept of EVs focuses on the utilization of alternative energy resources. However, EV systems currently face challenges in energy storage systems (ESSs) with regard to their safety, size, cost, and overall management issues. In addition, hybridization of ESSs with advanced power electronic technologies has a significant influence on optimal power utilization to lead advanced EV technologies. This paper comprehensively reviews technologies of ESSs, its classifications, characteristics, constructions, electricity conversion, and evaluation processes with advantages and disadvantages for EV applications. Moreover, this paper discusses various classifications of ESS according to their energy formations, composition materials, and techniques on average power delivery over its capacity and overall efficiencies exhibited within their life expectancies. The rigorous review indicates that existing technologies for ESS can be used for EVs, but the optimum use of ESSs for efficient EV energy storage applications has not yet been achieved. This review highlights many factors, challenges, and problems for sustainable development of ESS technologies in next-generation EV applications. Thus, this review will widen the effort toward the development of economic and efficient ESSs with a longer lifetime for future EV uses.

Review of energy storage systems for electric vehicle applications: Issues and challenges

A microgrid (MG) is a local entity that consists of distributed energy resources (DERs) to achieve local power reliability and sustainable energy utilization. The MG concept or renewable energy technologies integrated with energy storage systems (ESS) have gained increasing interest and popularity because it can store energy at off-peak hours and supply energy at peak hours. However, existing ESS technology faces challenges in storing energy due to various issues, such as charging/discharging, safety, reliability, size, cost, life cycle, and overall management. Thus, an advanced ESS is required with regard to capacity, protection, control interface, energy management, and characteristics to enhance the performance of ESS in MG applications. This paper comprehensively reviews the types of ESS technologies, ESS structures along with their configurations, classifications, features, energy conversion, and evaluation process. Moreover, details on the advantages and disadvantages of ESS in MG applications have been analyzed based on the process of energy formations, material selection, power transfer mechanism, capacity, efficiency, and cycle period. Existing reviews critically demonstrate the current technologies for ESS in MG applications. However, the optimum management of ESSs for efficient MG operation remains a challenge in modern power system networks. This review also highlights the key factors, issues, and challenges with possible recommendations for the further development of ESS in future MG applications. All the highlighted insights of this review significantly contribute to the increasing effort toward the development of a cost-effective and efficient ESS model with a prolonged life cycle for sustainable MG implementation.

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Review of Energy Storage System Technologies in Microgrid Applications: Issues and Challenges

Energy storage systems (ESSs) play a very important role in recent years. Flywheel is one of the oldest storage energy devices and it has several benefits. Flywheel Energy Storage System (FESS) can be applied from very small micro-satellites to huge power networks. A comprehensive review of FESS for hybrid vehicle, railway, wind power system, hybrid power generation system, power network, marine, space and other applications are presented in this paper. There are three main devices in FESS, including machine, bearing, and Power Electronic Interface (PEI). Furthermore, advantages and disadvantages all of them have been presented. In addition a brief review of new and conventional power electronic converters used in FESS, have been discussed. Finally, practical ways to develop this technology in the future are presented.

A comprehensive review of Flywheel Energy Storage System technology

Energy storage systems provide viable solutions for improving efficiency and power quality as well as reliability issues in dc/ac power systems including power grid with considerable penetrations of renewable energy. The storage systems are also essential for aircraft powertrains, shipboard power systems, electric vehicles, and hybrid electric vehicles to meet the peak load economically and improve the system’s reliability and efficiency. Significant development and research efforts have recently been made in high-power storage technologies such as supercapacitors, superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), and flywheels. These devices have a very high-power density and fast response time and are suitable for applications with rapid charge and discharge requirements. In this paper, the latest technological developments of these devices as well as advancements in the lithium-ion battery, the most power dense commercially available battery, are presented. Also, a comparative analysis of these high-power storage technologies in terms of power, energy, cost, life, and performance is carried out. This paper also presents the applications, advantages, and limitations of these technologies in a power grid and transportation system as well as critical and pulse loads.

Energy Storage Technologies for High-Power Applications

A method having the following steps: running a circulation valve comprising a reactive material into the well bore on the casing; reverse-circulating an activator material in the well bore until the activator material contacts the reactive material of the circulation valve; reconfiguring the circulation valve by contact of the activator material with the reactive material; and reverse-circulating a cement composition in the well bore until the reconfigured circulation valve decreases flow of the cement composition. A circulation valve for cementing casing in a well bore, the valve having: a valve housing connected to the casing and comprising a reactive material; a plurality of holes in the housing, wherein the plurality of holes allow fluid communication between an inner diameter of the housing and an exterior of the housing, wherein the reactive material is expandable to close the plurality of holes.

Casing shoes and methods of reverse-circulation cementing of casing

This paper presents the design of an optimal energy management strategy (EMS) for a low-cost mechanical hybrid powertrain. It uses mechanical components only-a flywheel, clutches, gears, and a continuously variable transmission-for its hybrid functionalities of brake energy recuperation, reduction of inefficient part-load operation of the engine, and engine shutoff during vehicle standstill. This powertrain has mechanical characteristics, such as a relatively small energy storage capacity in the form of the compact flywheel and multiple driving modes to operate the powertrain because of the use of clutches. The optimization problem is complex because it is two fold: 1) to find the optimal sequence of driving modes and 2) to find the optimal power distribution between the engine, the flywheel, and the vehicle. Dynamic programming is used to compute the globally optimal EMS for six representative driving cycles. The main design criterion is the minimization of the overall fuel consumption, subject to the system's kinematics, dynamics, and constraints. The results provide a benchmark of the fuel-saving potential of this powertrain design and give insight into the optimal utilization of the flywheel system. In addition, the complexity (and computation time) of the problem is reduced by a priori (static) optimization of the power distribution for each driving mode. Static optimization of a dynamic optimization problem yields a suboptimal solution; however, the results show that the consequences on the fuel saving are small with respect to the optimal one (the difference is <; 0.8%).

Optimal Control of a Mechanical Hybrid Powertrain

Vehicular drivelines with hierarchical powertrain control require good component controller tracking, enabling the main controller to reach the desired goals. This paper focuses on the development of a transmission ratio controller for a hydraulically actuated metal push-belt continuously variable transmission (CVT), using models for the mechanical and the hydraulic part of the CVT. The controller consists of an anti-windup PID feedback part with linearizing weighting and a setpoint feedforward. Physical constraints on the system, especially with respect to the hydraulic pressures, are accounted for using a feedforward part to eliminate their undesired effects on the ratio. The total ratio controller guarantees that one clamping pressure setpoint is minimal, avoiding belt slip, while the other is raised above the minimum level to enable shifting. This approach has potential for improving the efficiency of the CVT, compared to non-model based ratio controllers. Vehicle experiments show that adequate tracking is obtained together with good robustness against actuator saturation. The largest deviations from the ratio setpoint are caused by actuator pressure saturation. It is further revealed that all feedforward and compensator terms in the controller have a beneficial effect on minimizing the tracking error.

http://www.mate.tue.nl/mate/pdfs/5504.pdf

Control of a hydraulically actuated continuously variable transmission

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Component control for the Zero Inertia powertrain

Automatically controlled clutches are widely used in advanced automotive powertrains to transmit a demanded torque while synchronizing the rotational speeds of the shafts. The two objectives of the clutch engagement controller are a fast clutch engagement to reduce the frictional losses and thermal load, and a smooth clutch engagement to accurately track the demanded torque without a noticeable torque dip. Meanwhile, the controller is subjected to standard constraints such as model uncertainty and limited sensor information. This paper presents a new controller design that explicitly separates the control laws for each objective by introducing three clutch engagement phases. The time instants to switch between the subsequent phases are chosen such that the desired slip acceleration is achieved at the time of clutch engagement. The latter can be interpreted as a single calibration parameter that determines the tradeoff between fast and smooth clutch engagement. The controller is elaborated for a mechanical hybrid powertrain that uses a flywheel as a secondary power source and a continuously variable transmission. Simulations and experiments on a test rig show that the control objectives are realized with a robust and relatively simple controller.

Fast and Smooth Clutch Engagement Control for a Mechanical Hybrid Powertrain

A vehicle (1) has an epicyclic gearing (3) with three rotational members (5, 7, 9). Rotational member (9) is connected to a load formed by the wheels (17) of a vehicle. Rotational member (5) is connected to a flywheel (11) and rotational member (7) is connected to an engine (13). The vehicle (1) furthermore comprises a transmission-unit (19), embodied either as a conventional or as a automated manual transmission-unit, with two in/outputs (21, 23). In/output (21) is connected to the rotational member (7) and in/output (23) is connected to the third rotational member (9). A force-closed clutch (25) with slip capacity is located between in/output (21) and rotational member (7). With this transmission-system, the wheels (17) remain driven by the engine (13), also during disengagement of the clutch (25).

Bas Gerard Vroemen

Papers

Optimal Control of a Mechanical Hybrid Powertrain

Control of a hydraulically actuated continuously variable transmission

Component control for the Zero Inertia powertrain

Fast and Smooth Clutch Engagement Control for a Mechanical Hybrid Powertrain

Transmission system and method for driving a vehicle