A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.

The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.

Major perspectives concerning stress are presented with the goal of clarifying the nature of what has proved to be a heuristic but vague construct. Current conceptualizations of stress are challenged as being too phenomenological and ambiguous, and consequently, not given to direct empirical testing. Indeed, it is argued that researchers have tended to avoid the problem of defining stress, choosing to study stress without reference to a clear framework. A new stress model called the model of conservation of resources is presented as an alternative. This resource-oriented model is based on the supposition that people strive to retain, project, and build resources and that what is threatening to them is the potential or actual loss of these valued resources. Implications of the model of conservation of resources for new research directions are discussed.

Conservation of resources. A new attempt at conceptualizing stress.

In this article, the author describes a new theoretical perspective on positive emotions and situates this new perspective within the emerging field of positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory posits that experiences of positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought-action repertoires, which in turn serves to build their enduring personal resources, ranging from physical and intellectual resources to social and psychological resources. Preliminary empirical evidence supporting the broaden-and-build theory is reviewed, and open empirical questions that remain to be tested are identified. The theory and findings suggest that the capacity to experience positive emotions may be a fundamental human strength central to the study of human flourishing.

http://www.elaborer.org/cours/A13/lectures/Fredrickson2001.pdf

The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions.

Many prominent theorists have argued that accurate perceptions of the self, the world, and the future are essential for mental health. Yet considerable research evidence suggests that overly positive selfevaluations, exaggerated perceptions of control or mastery, and unrealistic optimism are characteristic of normal human thought. Moreover, these illusions appear to promote other criteria of mental health, including the ability to care about others, the ability to be happy or contented, and the ability to engage in productive and creative work. These strategies may succeed, in large part, because both the social world and cognitive-processing mechanisms impose niters on incoming information that distort it in a positive direction; negative information may be isolated and represented in as unthreatening a manner as possible. These positive illusions may be especially useful when an individual receives negative feedback or is otherwise threatened and may be especially adaptive under these circumstances. Decades of psychological wisdom have established contact with reality as a hallmark of mental health. In this view, the well-adjusted person is thought to engage in accurate reality testing, whereas the individual whose vision is clouded by illusion is regarded as vulnerable to, if not already a victim of, mental illness. Despite its plausibility, this viewpoint is increasingly difficult to maintain (cf. Lazarus, 1983). A substantial amount of research testifies to the prevalence of illusion in normal human cognition (see Fiske& Taylor, 1984;Greenwald, 1980; Nisbett & Ross, 1980; Sackeim, 1983; Taylor, 1983). Moreover, these illusions often involve central aspects of the self and the environment and, therefore, cannot be dismissed as inconsequential. In this article, we review research suggesting that certain illusions may be adaptive for mental health and well-being. In particular, we examine evidence that a set of interrelated positive illusions—namely, unrealistically positive self-evaluations, exaggerated perceptions of control or mastery, and unrealistic optimism—can serve a wide variety of cognitive, affective, and social functions. We also attempt to resolve the following para

/pdf/illusion-and-well-being-a-social-psychological-perspective-5acx7rw6hx.pdf

Illusion and well-being: a social psychological perspective on mental health

Feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but this impact can be either positive or negative. Its power is frequently mentioned in articles about learning and teaching, but surprisingly few recent studies have systematically investigated its meaning. This article provides a conceptual analysis of feedback and reviews the evidence related to its impact on learning and achievement. This evidence shows that although feedback is among the major influences, the type of feedback and the way it is given can be differentially effective. A model of feedback is then proposed that identifies the particular properties and circumstances that make it effective, and some typically thorny issues are discussed, including the timing of feedback and the effects of positive and negative feedback. Finally, this analysis is used to suggest ways in which feedback can be used to enhance its effectiveness in classrooms.

http://www.columbia.edu/~mvp19/ETF/Feedback.pdf

The Power of Feedback

Psychology has long been enamored of the dark side of human existence, rarely exploring a more positive view of the mind. What has psychology contributed, for example, to our understanding of the various human virtues? Regrettably, not much. The last decade, however, has witnessed a growing movement to abandon the exclusive focus on the negative. Psychologists from several subdisciplines are now asking an intriguing question: "What strengths does a person employ to deal effectively with life?" The Handbook of Positive Psychology provides a forum for a more positive view of the human condition. In its pages, readers are treated to an analysis of what the foremost experts believe to be the fundamental strengths of humankind. Both seasoned professionals and students just entering the field are eager to grasp the power and vitality of the human spirit as it faces a multitude of life challenges. The Handbook is the first systematic attempt to bring together leading scholars to give voice to the emerging field of positive psychology.

Handbook of positive psychology

Defining hope as a cognitive set that is composed of a reciprocally derived sense of successful (a) agency (goal-directed determination) and (b) pathways (planning of ways to meet goals), an individual-differences measure is developed. Studies demonstrate acceptable internal consistency and test-retest reliability, and the factor structure identifies the agency and pathways components of the Hope Scale. Convergent and discriminant validity are documented, along with evidence suggesting that Hope Scale scores augmented the prediction of goal-related activities and coping strategies beyond other self-report measures. Construct validational support is provided in regard to predicted goal-setting behaviors; moreover, the hypothesized goal appraisal processes that accompany the various levels of hope are corroborated.

/pdf/the-will-and-the-ways-development-and-validation-of-an-25ccgmqeiw.pdf

The will and the ways: development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope.

Defining hope as a cognitive set comprising agency (belief in one's capacity to initiate and sustain actions) and pathways (belief in one's capacity to generate routes) to reach goals, the Hope Scale was developed and validated previously as a dispositional self-report measure of hope (Snyder et al., 1991). The present 4 studies were designed to develop and validate a measure of state hope. The 6-item State Hope Scale is internally consistent and reflects the theorized agency and pathways components. The relationships of the State Hope Scale to other measures demonstrate concurrent and discriminant validity; moreover, the scale is responsive to events in the lives of people as evidenced by data gathered through both correlational and causal designs. The State Hope Scale offers a brief, internally consistent, and valid self-report measure of ongoing goal-directed thinking that may be useful to researchers and applied professionals.

Development and validation of the State Hope Scale.

Hope is defined as the perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals, and motivate oneself via agency thinking to use those pathways. The adult and child hope scales that are derived from hope theory are described. Hope theory is compared to theories of learned optimism, optimism, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. Higher hope consistently is related to better outcomes in academics, athletics, physical health, psychological adjustment, and psychotherapy. Processes that lessen hope in children and adults are reviewed. Using the hope theory definition, no evidence is found for "false" hope. Future research is encouraged in regard to accurately enhancing hope in medical feedback and helping people to pursue those goals for which they are best suited.

Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind.

Striking a Vital Balance: Developing A Complementary Focus on Human Weakness and Strength Through Positive Psychological Assessment - Shane J. Lopez, C. R. Snyder, & Heather N. Rasmussen Measuring and Labeling the Positive and the Negative - C. R. Snyder, Shane J. Lopez, Lisa M. Edwards, Jennifer Teramoto Pedrotti, Ellie C. Prosser, Stephanie LaRue Walton, Susan Spalitto, & Jon C. Uiven Positive Psychological Assessment in an Increasingly Diverse World - Lisa Flores & Ezemenari M. Obasi Learned Optimism: The Measurement of Explanatory Style - Karen Reivich & Jane Gillham Optimism - Charles C. Carver & Michael F. Scheier Hope: Many Definitions, Many Measures - Shane J. Lopez, C. R. Snyder, & Jennifer Teramoto Pedrotti Measuring Career Self-Efficacy: Promoting Confidence and Happiness at Work - Karen M. O'Brien Problem-Solving Appraisal - P. Paul Heppner & Yu-Wei Wang Locus of Control: Back to Basics - Genevieve Fournier & Chantale Jeanrie Assessing Creativity in Research and Practice - Barb Kerr & Camea Gagliardi The Assessment of Wisdom-Related Performance - U. M. Staudinger & B. Leipold Profiling Courage - Shane J. Lopez, Kristin Koetting O'Byrne, & Stephanie Petersen Measuring Positive Emotions - Richard E. Lucas, Ed Diener, & Randy J. Larsen Assessing Self-Esteem - Todd F. Heatherton & Carrie L. Wyland Romantic Love: Measuring Cupid's Arrow - Clyde Hendrick & Susan S. Hendrick Measuring Emotional Inteiligence as a Set of Abilities With the MSCEIT - Peter Salovey, John D. Mayer, David Caruso, & Paulo N. Lopes Empathy and Its Measurement - Qing Zhou, Carlos Valiente, & Nancy Eisenberg The Assessment of Adult Attachment Security - Frederick G. Lopez Measuring Forgiveness - Laura Yamhure Thompson & C. R. Snyder Sense of Humor - Rod A. Martin The Assessment of Gratitude - Robert A. Emmons, Michael E. McCullough, & Jo-Ann Tsang Measuring Religious Constructs: A Hierarchical Approach to Construct Organization and Scale Selection - Jo-Ann Tsang & Michael E. McCullough Moral Judgment Maturity: From Clinical to Standard Measures - John C. Gibbs, Karen S. Basinger, & Rebecca L. Grime Vocational Psychology Assessment: Positive Human Characteristics Leading to Positive Work Outcomes - Christine Robitschek Positive Coping: Mastering Demands and Searching for Meaning - Ralf Schwarzer & Nina Knoll The Measurement and Utility of Adult Subjective Well - Being-Corey L. M. Keyes & Jeana L. Magyar-Moe Quality of Life - M. J. Power Environmental Assessment: Examining Influences on Optimal Human Functioning - Heather N. Rasmussen, Jason E. Neufeld, Jennifer C. Bouwkamp, Lisa M. Edwards, Alicia Ito, Jeana L. Magyar-Moe, Jamie A. Ryder, & Shane J. Lopez The Future of Positive Psychological Assessment: Making a Difference - Shane J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder

C. R. Snyder

Papers

Handbook of positive psychology

The will and the ways: development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope.

Development and validation of the State Hope Scale.

Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind.

Positive Psychological Assessment: A Handbook of Models and Measures