Showing papers in "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology in 1991"
TL;DR: The proposed model was shown to be applicable to representations of family relations; Ss' attachment styles with peers were correlated with family attachment ratings.
Abstract: A new 4-group model of attachment styles in adulthood is proposed. Four prototypic attachment patterns are defined using combinations of a person's self-image (positive or negative) and image of others (positive or negative). In Study 1, an interview was developed to yield continuous and categorical ratings of the 4 attachment styles. Intercorrelations of the attachment ratings were consistent with the proposed model. Attachment ratings were validated by self-report measures of self-concept and interpersonal functioning. Each style was associated with a distinct profile of interpersonal problems, according to both self- and friend-reports. In Study 2, attachment styles within the family of origin and with peers were assessed independently. Results of Study 1 were replicated. The proposed model was shown to be applicable to representations of family relations; Ss' attachment styles with peers were correlated with family attachment ratings.
6,610 citations
TL;DR: An individual-differences measure is developed and construct validational support is provided in regard to predicted goal-setting behaviors; moreover, the hypothesized goal appraisal processes that accompany the various levels of hope are corroborated.
Abstract: Defining hope as a cognitive set that is composed of a reciprocally derived sense of successful (a) agency (goal-directed determination) and (b) pathways (planning of ways to meet goals), an individual-differences measure is developed. Studies demonstrate acceptable internal consistency and test-retest reliability, and the factor structure identifies the agency and pathways components of the Hope Scale. Convergent and discriminant validity are documented, along with evidence suggesting that Hope Scale scores augmented the prediction of goal-related activities and coping strategies beyond other self-report measures. Construct validational support is provided in regard to predicted goal-setting behaviors; moreover, the hypothesized goal appraisal processes that accompany the various levels of hope are corroborated.
3,578 citations
TL;DR: Regression analysis showed that students who, before the earthquake, already had elevated levels of depression and stress symptoms and a ruminative style of responding to their symptoms had more depression andstress symptoms for both follow-ups.
Abstract: Measures of emotional health and styles of responding to negative moods were obtained for 137 students 14 days before the Loma Prieta earthquake. A follow-up was done 10 days again 7 weeks after the earthquake to test predictions about which of the students would show the most enduring symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress. Regression analysis showed that students who, before the earthquake, already had elevated levels of depression and stress symptoms and a ruminative style of responding to their symptoms had more depression and stress symptoms for both follow-ups. Students who were exposed to more dangerous or difficult circumstances because of the earthquake also had elevated symptom levels 10 days after the earthquake. Similarly, students who, during the 10 days after the earthquake, had more ruminations about the earthquake were still more likely to have high levels of depressive and stress symptoms 7 weeks after the earthquake.
2,747 citations
TL;DR: It is demonstrated that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology.
Abstract: This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology. We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment.
2,694 citations
TL;DR: The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) as mentioned in this paper is a modified version of the Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959).
Abstract: This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined; it was concluded that the SSES is sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. The scale has many potential uses, which include serving as a valid manipulation check index, measuring clinical change in self-esteem, and untangling the confounded relation between mood and self-esteem.
1,864 citations
TL;DR: The cognitive significance of being in a close relationship is described in terms of including other in the self as mentioned in this paper, in Lewin's sense of overlapping regions of the life space and in James's sense as resources, perspectives, and characteristics.
Abstract: The cognitive significance of being in a close relationship is described in terms of including other in the self (in Lewin's sense of overlapping regions of the life space and in James's sense of the self as resources, perspectives, and characteristics). Experiment 1, adapting Liebrand's (1984) deco
1,631 citations
TL;DR: To test whether attentional resources are automatically directed away from an attended task to undesirable stimuli, Ss named the colors in which desirable and undesirable traits appeared, and color-naming latencies were consistently longer for undesirable traits but did not differ within the desirable and desirable categories.
Abstract: One of the functions of automatic stimulus evaluation is to direct attention toward events that may have undesirable consequences for the perceiver's well-being. To test whether attentional resources are automatically directed away from an attended task to undesirable stimuli, Ss named the colors in which desirable and undesirable traits (e.g., honest, sadistic) appeared. Across 3 experiments, color-naming latencies were consistently longer for undesirable traits but did not differ within the desirable and undesirable categories. In Experiment 2, Ss also showed more incidental learning for undesirable traits, as predicted by the automatic vigilance (but not a perceptual defense) hypothesis. In Experiment 3, a diagnosticity (or base-rate) explanation of the vigilance effect was ruled out. The implications for deliberate processing in person perception and stereotyping are discussed. There is a fundamental asymmetry in people's evaluations of gains and losses, of joy and pain, and of positive and negative events. A considerable body of research, in fields as diverse as decision making, impression formation, and emotional communication, has shown that people exhibit loss aversion (Kahneman & Tversky, 1984): They assign relatively more value, importance, and weight to events that have negative, rather than positive, implications for them. In decision making, potential costs are more influential than potential gains (e.g., Kahneman & Tversky, 1979). In impression formation, negative information is weighted more heavily than positive information (e.g., Anderson, 1974; Fiske, 1980; Hamilton & Zanna, 1972). In nonverbal communication, perceivers are more responsive to negatively toned messages than to positive ones (Frodi, Lamb, Leavitt, & Donovan, 1978). Quite generally, then, "losses loom larger than gains" (Kahneman & Tversky, 1984, p. 348). There are good evolutionary reasons for this widespread and pronounced asymmetry in people's evaluative reactions. Events that may negatively affect the individual are typically of greater time urgency than are events that lead to desirable consequences. Averting danger to one's well-being, such as preventing loss of life or limb, often requires an immediate response. In
1,486 citations
TL;DR: This article found that participants who had to recall 12 examples of assertive (unassertive) behaviors, which was difficult, rated themselves as less assertive and less unassertive than subjects who had only recall 6 examples, which were easy.
Abstract: Experienced ease of recall was found to qualify the implications of recalled content. Ss who had to recall 12 examples of assertive (unassertive) behaviors, which was difficult, rated themselves as less assertive (less unassertive) than subjects who had to recall 6 examples, which was easy In fact, Ss reported higher assertiveness after recalling 12 unassertive rather than 12 assertive behaviors. Thus, self-assessments only reflected the implications of recaUed content if recall was easy The impact of ease of recall was eliminated when its informational value was discredited by a misattribution manipulation. The informative functions of subjective experiences are discussed.
1,367 citations
TL;DR: College students who analyzed why they felt the way they did agreed less with the experts than students who did not, which caused people to make choices that corresponded less with expert opinion.
Abstract: In Study 1, college students' preferences for different brands of strawberry jams were compared with experts' ratings of the jams. Students who analyzed why they felt the way they did agreed less with the experts than students who did not. In Study 2, college students' preferences for college courses were compared with expert opinion. Some students were asked to analyze reasons; others were asked to evaluate all attributes of all courses. Both kinds of introspection caused people to make choices that, compared with control subjects', corresponded less with expert opinion. Analyzing reasons can focus people's attention on nonoptimal criteria, causing them to base their subsequent choices on these criteria. Evaluating multiple attributes can moderate people's judgments, causing them to discriminate less between the different alternatives.
1,345 citations
TL;DR: Individual differences in willingness to engage in uncommitted sexual relations were investigated in 6 studies and it was demonstrated that the SOI correlates negligibly with measures of sexual satisfaction, anxiety, and guilt.
Abstract: Individual differences in willingness to engage in uncommitted sexual relations were investigated in 6 studies. In Study 1, a 5-item Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI) was developed. Studies 2, 3, and 4 provided convergent validity evidence for the SOI, revealing that persons who have an unrestricted sociosexual orientation tend to (a) engage in sex at an earlier point in their relationships, (b) engage in sex with more than 1 partner at a time, and (c) be involved in relationships characterized by less investment, commitment, love, and dependency. Study 5 provided discriminant validity for the SOI, revealing that it does not covary appreciably with a good marker of sex drive. Study 6 demonstrated that the SOI correlates negligibly with measures of sexual satisfaction, anxiety, and guilt. The possible stability of, origins of, and motivational bases underlying individual differences in sociosexuality are discussed.
1,283 citations
TL;DR: Results are consistent with the hypothesis that neurotic Ss (comparing with stable Ss) show heightened emotional reactivity to the negative-mood induction, whereas extraverts (compared with intraverts) show increased emotional reactivities to the positive-Mood induction.
Abstract: Gray's (1981) theory suggests that extraverts and neurotics are differentially sensitive to stimuli that generate positive and negative affect, respectively. From this theory it was hypothesized that efficacy of a standard positive-affect induction would be more strongly related to extraversion than to neuroticism scores, whereas efficacy of a standard negative-affect induction would be more strongly related to neuroticism scores. Positive and negative affect was manipulated in a controlled setting, and the effectiveness of the mood induction was assessed using standard mood adjective rating scales. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that neurotic Ss (compared with stable Ss) show heightened emotional reactivity to the negative-mood induction, whereas extraverts (compared with intraverts) show heightened emotional reactivity to the positive-mood induction. Results corroborate and extend previous findings. With personality psychology undergoing a "decade of accomplishment" (Buss & Cantor, 1989) during what has also been called the "decade of emotion" (Tomkins, 1981), it is not surprising that studies of the relationship between personality and emotion now form an identifiable subdiscipline of research. Several relatively strong and consistent findings have accumulated in this area. Among the most consistently replicated findings are the relationships between extraversion and average levels of positive affect and between neuroticism and average levels of negative affect. For example, Costa and McCrae (1980) found that extraversion traits correlate strongly with positive affect and that neuroticism traits correlate strongly with negative affect. These same relationships were also found in a follow-up study by Costa and McCrae (1980), with extraversion predicting levels of positive affect 10 years later and with neuroticism predicting levels of negative affect 10 years later. These authors concluded that "extraversion. . . pre
TL;DR: This article found that cognitive busyness may decrease the likelihood that a particular stereotype will be activated but increase the likelihood of an activated stereotype being applied when applied to an Asian target, and that busy subjects were more likely to apply these activated stereotypes than were not-busy subjects.
Abstract: Two studies investigated the effects of cognitive busyness on the activation and application of stereotypes. In Experiment 1, not-busy subjects who were exposed to an Asian target showed evidence of stereotype activation, but busy subjects (who rehearsed an 8-digit number during their exposure) did not. In Experiment 2, cognitive busyness once again inhibited the activation of stereotypes about Asians. However, when stereotype activation was allowed to occur, busy subjects (who performed a visual search task during their exposure) were more likely to apply these activated stereotypes than were not-busy subjects. Together, these findings suggest that cognitive busyness may decrease the likelihood that a particular stereotype will be activated but increase the likelihood that an activated stereotype will be applied.
TL;DR: On the basis of Greenwald and Pratkanis's distinction between private and collective aspects of the self and on Triandis's theory about individualistic and collectivistic cultures, two competing theories concerning the organization of self-cognitions were proposed.
Abstract: On the bases of Greenwald and Pratkanis's (1984) distinction between private and collective aspects of the self and on Triandis's (1989) theory about individualistic and collectivistic cultures, 2 competing theories concerning the organization of self-cognitions were proposed. Findings from 2 experi
TL;DR: A theory of accommodation processes is advanced, and the results of 6 studies are reported as discussed by the authors, and it is shown that self-reports of accommodation are related to relevant behavioral measures, such as commitment, commitment, investment size, centrality of relationship, psychological femininity, and partner perspective taking.
Abstract: A theory of accommodation processes is advanced, and the results of 6 studies are reported. Accommodation refers to the willingness, when a partner has engaged in a potentially destructive act, to inhibit impulses to react destructively and instead react constructively. Studies 1 and 2 demonstrated that accommodation is lower under conditions of reduced social concern and lower interdependence. Studies 3,4, and 5 revealed that accommodation is associated with greater satis- faction, commitment, investment size, centrality of relationship, psychological femininity, and partner perspective taking and with poorer quality alternatives. Commitment plays a fairly strong role in mediating willingness to accommodate. Study 6 showed that couple functioning is asso- ciated with greater joint and mutual tendencies to inhibit destructive reactions. Study 6 also demon- strated that self-reports of accommodation are related to relevant behavioral measures. All partners in close relationships eventually behave badly. It is inevitable that in responding to the irritations and dissatisfac- tions of everyday life, one or the other partner eventually will engage in a potentially destructive act (e.g., being thoughtless, yelling at the partner, or not spending adequate time at home). How are people likely to react to such breaches of good behav- ior? Are they likely to exacerbate the problem by reacting de- structively in turn, or are they more likely to soothe ruffled feelings by reacting constructively? What makes them more willing to react constructively and inhibit destructive impulses? Do partners typically share equally in dealing with destructive content? Does feeling less involved than the partner lead to reduced willingness to react constructively? Our work ad- dresses such questions, and concerns a phenomenon that we term accommodation.' Accommodation refers to an individ- ual's willingness, when a partner has engaged in a potentially destructive behavior, to (a) inhibit tendencies to react destruc- tively in turn and (b) instead engage in constructive reactions. This article advances a general model of accommodation and presents preliminary empirical evidence regarding this phe- nomenon. We begin with a discussion of the response typology used in our model—the exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect typol- ogy Then we explore the implications of conceptualizing ac- commodation using an interdependen ce analysis (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978). Finally, we advance several hypotheses regard- ing the causes and dynamics of accommodation and review the results of six studies that serve as preliminary empirical tests of our model. Exit, Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect Our theory of accommodation processes emerged from re- search on Rusbult's exit-voice-loyalty-neglect typology of re- sponses to dissatisfaction in close relationships (Rusbult, Zem- brodt, & Gunn, 1982). The typology is based on the writings of Hirschman (1970), who discussed three reactions to decline in formal organizations: (a) exit—actively destroying the relation- ship; (b) voice—actively and constructively attempting to im- prove conditions; and (c) loyalty—passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve. To assess the comprehen- siveness of this model, Rusbult and Zembrodt (1983) performed multidimensional scaling studies of couple responses to dissat- isfaction. They found that Hirschman's categories character- ized responses to dissatisfaction in close relationships, and they
TL;DR: Depression findings of more negative affect in women do not conflict with well-being findings of equal happiness across gender, and generally, women's more intense positive emotions balance their higher negative affect.
Abstract: Affect intensity (AI) may reconcile 2 seemingly paradoxical findings: Women report more negative affect than men but equal happiness as men. AI describes people's varying response intensity to identical emotional stimuli. A college sample of 66 women and 34 men was assessed on both positive and negative affect using 4 measurement methods: self-report, peer report, daily report, and memory performance. A principal-components analysis revealed an affect balance component and an AI component. Multimeasure affect balance and AI scores were created, and t tests were computed that showed women to be as happy as and more intense than men. Gender accounted for less than 1% of the variance in happiness but over 13% in AI. Thus, depression findings of more negative affect in women do not conflict with well-being findings of equal happiness across gender. Generally, women's more intense positive emotions balance their higher negative affect.
TL;DR: In this article, the emergence of male and female leaders in initially leaderless groups is reviewed and a review on the role of gender in leader selection and selection is presented. But,
Abstract: In this article, research is reviewed on the emergence of male and female leaders in initially leaderless groups
TL;DR: Results indicate that shame and guilt are distinct affective experiences that have important and quite different implications in the interpersonal realm, and suggest that guilt may not be that bad after all, at least at the interpersonal domain.
Abstract: The relations among 3 moral affective personality characteristics--shame-proneness, guilt-proneness, and empathic responsiveness--were examined in 4 independent studies of undergraduates. Results indicate that shame and guilt are distinct affective experiences that have important and quite different implications in the interpersonal realm. There was a substantial positive correlation between shame-proneness and guilt-proneness. Nonetheless, as predicted, other-oriented empathic responsiveness was negatively related to proneness to shame but positively correlated with proneness to guilt. In contrast, an index of more self-oriented personal distress was positively linked to shame-proneness. Taken together, these results add a new dimension to the ugliness of shame but suggest that guilt may not be that bad after all, at least in the interpersonal domain.
TL;DR: The authors investigated the hypothesis that the stigmatized can protect their self-esteem by attributing negative feedback to prejudice and reported less depressed affect than women who received negative feedback from a non-prejudiced evaluator.
Abstract: Two experiments investigated the hypothesis that the stigmatized can protect their self-esteem by attributing negative feedback to prejudice. Fifty-nine women participated in the 1st experiment. Women who received negative feedback from a prejudiced evaluator attributed the feedback to his prejudice and reported less depressed affect than women who received negative feedback from a nonprejudiced evaluator. In the 2nd experiment, 38 Black and 45 White students received interpersonal feedback from a White evaluator, who cither could see them or could not. Compared with Whites, Blacks were more likely to attribute negative feedback to prejudice than positive feedback and were more likely to attribute both types of feedback to prejudice when they could be seen by the other student. Being seen by the evaluator buffered the self-esteem of Blacks from negative feedback but hurt the self-esteem of Blacks who received positive feedback.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors distinguished self-deception, the tendency to give favorably biased but honestly held self-descriptions impression management, from denial, the repudiation of negative attributes.
Abstract: One research tradition has distinguished self-deception, the tendency to give favorably biased but honestly held self-descriptions impression management, the tendency to give favorable selfdescriptions to others. A 2nd tradition has distinguished enhancement, the claiming of positive attributes, from denial, the repudiation of negative attributes. The 2 distinctions were evaluated jointly in 3 studies. Factor analyses showed that impression management items (both enhancement and denial) loaded together. Self-deception items split up: Enhancement items formed a 2nd factor, whereas denial items fell closer to the impression management factor. Of the 4 types, self-deceptive enhancement best predicted adjustment. These results clarify the constructs of enhancement and denial: The critical distinction is not simply one of keying direction but whether the item content refers to a positive or negative attribute.
TL;DR: The utility of the sufficiency principle for understanding motivation for elaborative processing, the relevance of the findings to understanding the processing and judgmental effects of expectancy disconfirmation, and the additivity and attenuation assumptions of the model are discussed.
Abstract: Ss received consensus information that was either congruent or incongruent with the valence of persuasive message content. In Experiment 1 Ss believed that their processing task was either important or unimportant whereas in Experiment 2 all Ss believed that their task was unimportant. In accord with the heuristic-systematic model's sufficiency principle, high-task-importance Ss exhibited a great deal of systematic processing regardless of congruency, whereas low-importance Ss processed systematically only when they received incongruent messages; in the congruent conditions heuristic processing dominated. Attitude data generally reflected these processing differences and confirmed the additivity and attenuation assumptions of the model. The utility of the sufficiency principle for understanding motivation for elaborative processing and the relevance of the findings to understanding the processing and judgmental effects of expectancy disconfirmation are discussed.
TL;DR: The authors examined the lack of strong correlations among existing self-report measures of narcissism and found that vulnerability sensitivity was associated with introversion, defensiveness, anxiety, and vulnerability to life's traumas whereas grandiosity-exhibitionism was related to extraversion, self-assurance, exhibitionism, and aggression.
Abstract: The present study examines the lack of strong correlations among existing self-report measures of narcissism. A principal-components analysis of 6 MMPI narcissism scales resulted in 2 orthogonal factors, 1 implying Vulnerability-Sensitivity and the other Grandiosity-Exhibitionism. Although unrelated to each other, these 2 factors were associated with such core features of narcissism as conceit, self-indulgence, and disregard of others. Despite this common core, however, Vulnerability-Sensitivity was associated with introversion, defensiveness, anxiety, and vulnerability to life's traumas, whereas Grandiosity-Exhibitionism was related to extraversion, self-assurance, exhibitionism, and aggression. Three alternative interpretations of these results are considered, and an argument for the distinction between covert and overt narcissism is made.
TL;DR: Memory performance of 118 individuals who had been in close dating relationships for at least 3 months was studied by as mentioned in this paper, where some Ss were paired with their partners and some were assigned with an opposite-sex partner from another couple.
Abstract: Memory performance of 118 individuals who had been in close dating relationships for at least 3 months was studied. For a memory task ostensibly to be performed by pairs, some Ss were paired with their partners and some were paired with an opposite-sex partner from another couple. For some pairs a memory structure was assigned (e.g., 1 partner should remember food items, another should remember history items, etc.), whereas for others no structure was mentioned. Pairs studied together without communication, and recall was tested in individuals. Memory performance of the natural pairs was better than that of impromptu pairs without assigned structure, whereas the performance of natural pairs was inferior to that of impromptu pairs when structure was assigned.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the influence of social comparison on cognitive self-regulatory processes in the context of managerial decision making in a dynamic simulated environment and found that similar and superior social-comparative patterns of influence had a supportive self-reaction effect.
Abstract: This study tested the hypothesis that different patterns of social comparison would affect performance attainments in a simulated organization through their impact on mediating self-regulatory mechanisms. Ss served as organizational decision makers under prearranged comparative feedback that they performed as well as their comparators, consistently surpassed them, achieved growing mastery, or experienced progressive decline. Progressive mastery enhanced perceived self-efficacy, efficient analytic thinking, challenging goal setting, aidful affective self-reaction, and organizational performance. Relative decline undermined these self-regulatory factors and produced a growing deterioration of organizational performance. The similar and superior socialcomparative patterns of influence had a supportive self-regulative and performance effect. Path analyses revealed that perceived self-eificacy, quality of analytic thinking, personal goal setting, and affective self-reactions operated as significant determinants of performance attainments. Many of the theories that have been proposed over the years to explain human sociocognitive functioning have relied heavily on causal models favoring one-sided determinism. In such models of unidirectional causation, behavior is depicted as being shaped and regulated either by environmental influences or by internal dispositions. In the more recent, partially bidirectional models of causation, persons and situations affect each other but their influence on behavior flows unidirectionally. Social cognitive theory explains sociocognitive functioning in terms of triadic reciprocal causation (A. Bandura, 1986). In this model of reciprocal determinism, behavior, cognitive, and other personal factors and environmental events all operate as interacting determinants that influence each other bidirectionally. In analyzing the personal determinants in this interactional causal structure, social-cognitive theory accords a central role to cognitive self-regulative processes. In this research, interactional causal structures are examined as they operate within the context of managerial decision making in a dynamic simulated environment. Each of the major interactants in the triadic causal structure--cognitive, behavioral, and environmental-~-functions as an important constituent of the transactional processes. The cognitive determinant is indexed by self-beliefs of etficacy, personal goal setting, selfevaluation, and quality of analytic thinking. The managerial choices that are executed constitute the behavioral determi
TL;DR: Relationship-based perceptions of support and conflict from mothers and friends each added to the prediction of loneliness after considering the contribution of general perceived social support.
Abstract: Two hypotheses derived from a theory of perceived social support were investigated: (a) relationship-based perceptions of social support are distinct from general perceptions of support, and (b) measures of each construct contribute uniquely to the prediction of loneliness. Ninety-four male and 116 female undergraduates completed measures of loneliness and general perceived social support and the Quality of Relationships Inventory, a new instrument to assess relationship-based perceptions of social support, conflict, and depth in specific relationships. General and relationship-based perceptions of social support were found to be related, but empirically distinct, constructs. Relationship-based perceptions of support and conflict from mothers and friends each added to the prediction of loneliness after considering the contribution of general perceived social support. Implications of these findings for understanding the perceived social support construct are discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the role that attachment styles play in the way adults disclose themselves to others and found that both secure and ambivalent people showed more self-disclosure than avoidant people.
Abstract: In 3 studies, 352 undergraduate Israeli students were classified into secure, avoidant, and ambivalent attachment groups, and their differences in traitlike measures of self-disclosure willingness and flexibility and in disclosure reciprocity and liking of hypothetical or real partners were assessed. Findings indicated that both secure and ambivalent people showed more self-disclosure than avoidant people. Findings also yielded that secure and ambivalent people disclosed more information to, felt better interacting with, and were more attracted to a high discloser partner than a low discloser partner. In contrast, avoidant people's self-disclosure and liking were not affected by the partner's disclosure. Secure people showed more disclosure flexibility and topical reciprocity than ambivalent and avoidant people. Findings are discussed in terms of the interaction goals of attachment groups. Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969,1973,1980) explains individual differences in the way infants regulate inner distress and relate to others. Recently, Hazan and Shaver (1987) extended attachment theory from research on parent-child interaction to the study of adult interpersonal relationships. In the current study, we continue Hazan and Shaver's line of research and examine the role that attachment styles play in the way adults disclose themselves to others. In adults, self-disclosure is critical in determining the outcome of interpersonal relationships (i£., Berg & Derlega, 1987) and may be associated with a person's attachment style.
TL;DR: Ss reported their standards for how they should respond and how they would respond in contact situations with Black people (Study 1) and homosexual men (Study 2) and their affective consequences associated with should-would discrepancies as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Ss reported their standards for how they should respond and how they would respond in contact situations with Black people (Study 1) and homosexual men (Study 2). Interest centered on the affective consequences associated with should-would discrepancies
TL;DR: Results suggest the need to acknowledge the limitations on adaptation imposed by health and the health care system and there may be tradeoffs between preserving one's own well-being and contributing to a partner's efficacy.
Abstract: Conventional models of stress and coping are highly individualistic and give little attention to circumstances and involvement with others. A more contextual perspective on wives of patients who had suffered myocardial infarctions was adopted in this study. Wives' distress was related to the character of the infarction, but initial contact with medical personnel and marital quality each had independent contributions. Other analyses related wives' distress to their and the patients' coping. Wives' protective buffering of patients had a positive relationship with their own distress, even though Smith & Coyne (1988) have shown it contributes to patients' self-efficacy. Results suggest the need to acknowledge the limitations on adaptation imposed by health and the health care system. Also, initial conditions set a trajectory for later adaptation and there may be tradeoffs between preserving one's own well-being and contributing to a partner's efficacy.
TL;DR: Spouses with secure working models (self as relying on partner and partner as psychologically available) showed more constructive modulation of emotion and reported better marital adjustment and the accuracy of internal working models was associated with independent reports of marital adjustment.
Abstract: Working models of attachment in marital functioning were examined. The security and accuracy of working models were measured with a new Q-sort method. Spouses with secure working models (self as relying on partner and partner as psychologically available) showed more constructive modulation of emotion and reported better marital adjustment. The accuracy of internal working models, measured with an objective index of spouses' agreement about models, was associated with independent reports of marital adjustment and observers' ratings of communication in problem-solving and confiding tasks. Behavior in communication tasks showed predictable associations with attachment security. Husbands' attachment security covaried with wives' rejection during problem solving, and wives' security covaried with quality of husbands' listening during a confiding task. A reciprocal interaction view of working models and marital functioning is supported.
TL;DR: The authors found that people smile more often when they are alone than when a friend is present, and that the smiles are better predicted by social context than by emotion, which is consistent with both contemporary ethology and role and impression management theories of behavior.
Abstract: Ss viewed a pleasant videotape either: (a) alone, (b) alone but with the belief that a friend nearby was otherwise engaged, (c) alone but with the belief that a friend was viewing the same videotape in another room, or (d) when a friend was present. S'ssmiling, as estimated by facial electromyography, varied monotonically with the sociality of viewing but not with reported emotion. The findings confirm audience effects for human smiles, demonstrate that the effects do not depend upon the presence of the interactant, and indicate that the smiles are better predicted by social context than by emotion. Both naive and expert independent raters given descriptions of the study made predictions that conformed to previous emotion-based accounts of faces but departed from the findings. The results suggest that some solitary faces may be implicitly social, a view consistent with both contemporary ethology, and role and impression-management theories of behavior. People make faces when they are alone. This curious fact may have been crucial in shaping the most popular contemporary theories of facial expression. These generally hold that whereas some faces reflect social convention, others are quasi-reflexive released displays of felt emotion (Buck, 1984; Darwin, 1872; Ekman, 1972,1973,1977,1984; Ekman & Friesen, 1969,1975,