This paper describes the rheological behavior of the liquid metal eutectic gallium-indium (EGaIn) as it is injected into microfluidic channels to form stable microstructures of liquid metal. EGaIn is well-suited for this application because of its rheological properties at room temperature: it behaves like an elastic material until it experiences a critical surface stress, at which point it yields and flows readily. These properties allow EGaIn to fill microchannels rapidly when sufficient pressure is applied to the inlet of the channels, yet maintain structural stability within the channels once ambient pressure is restored. Experiments conducted in microfluidic channels, and in a parallel-plate rheometer, suggest that EGaIn’s behavior is dictated by the properties of its surface (predominantly gallium oxide, as determined by Auger measurements); these two experiments both yield approximately the same number for the critical surface stress required to induce EGaIn to flow (~0.5 N/m). This analysis–which shows that the pressure that must be exceeded for EGaIn to flow through a microchannel is inversely proportional to the critical (i.e., smallest) dimension of the channel–is useful to guide future fabrication of microfluidic channels to mold EGaIn into functional microstructures.

Eutectic Gallium-Indium (EGaIn) : A Liquid Metal Alloy for the Formation of Stable Structures in Microchannels at Room Temperature

Bio-integrated wearable systems can measure a broad range of biophysical, biochemical, and environmental signals to provide critical insights into overall health status and to quantify human performance. Recent advances in material science, chemical analysis techniques, device designs, and assembly methods form the foundations for a uniquely differentiated type of wearable technology, characterized by noninvasive, intimate integration with the soft, curved, time-dynamic surfaces of the body. This review summarizes the latest advances in this emerging field of “bio-integrated” technologies in a comprehensive manner that connects fundamental developments in chemistry, material science, and engineering with sensing technologies that have the potential for widespread deployment and societal benefit in human health care. An introduction to the chemistries and materials for the active components of these systems contextualizes essential design considerations for sensors and associated platforms that appear in f...

Bio-Integrated Wearable Systems: A Comprehensive Review

Post-transition elements, together with zinc-group metals and their alloys belong to an emerging class of materials with fascinating characteristics originating from their simultaneous metallic and liquid natures. These metals and alloys are characterised by having low melting points (i.e. between room temperature and 300 °C), making their liquid state accessible to practical applications in various fields of physical chemistry and synthesis. These materials can offer extraordinary capabilities in the synthesis of new materials, catalysis and can also enable novel applications including microfluidics, flexible electronics and drug delivery. However, surprisingly liquid metals have been somewhat neglected by the wider research community. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the fundamentals underlying liquid metal research, including liquid metal synthesis, surface functionalisation and liquid metal enabled chemistry. Furthermore, we discuss phenomena that warrant further investigations in relevant fields and outline how liquid metals can contribute to exciting future applications.

Liquid metals: fundamentals and applications in chemistry

Gallium and several of its alloys are liquid metals at or near room temperature. Gallium has low toxicity, essentially no vapor pressure, and a low viscosity. Despite these desirable properties, applications calling for liquid metal often use toxic mercury because gallium forms a thin oxide layer on its surface. The oxide interferes with electrochemical measurements, alters the physicochemical properties of the surface, and changes the fluid dynamic behavior of the metal in a way that has, until recently, been considered a nuisance. Here, we show that this solid oxide “skin” enables many new applications for liquid metals including soft electrodes and sensors, functional microcomponents for microfluidic devices, self-healing circuits, shape-reconfigurable conductors, and stretchable antennas, wires, and interconnects.

Emerging Applications of Liquid Metals Featuring Surface Oxides

This highlight describes emerging methods to pattern metals that are liquid at room temperature. The ability to pattern liquid metals is important for fabricating metallic components that are soft, stretchable, conformal, and in some cases, shape-reconfigurable. Applications include electrodes, antennas, micro-mirrors, plasmonic structures, sensors, switches, and interconnects. Gallium (Ga) and its liquid metal alloys are attractive alternatives to toxic mercury. This family of alloys spontaneously forms a surface oxide that dominates the rheological and wetting properties of the metal. These properties pose challenges using conventional fabrication methods, but present new opportunities for patterning innovations. For example, Ga-based liquid metals may be injected, imprinted, or 3D printed on either soft or hard substrates. The use of a liquid metal also enables rapid and facile room temperature processing. The patterning techniques organize into four categories: (i) patterning enabled by lithography, (ii) injection, (iii) subtractive techniques, and (iv) additive techniques. Although many of these approaches take advantage of the surface oxide that forms on Ga and its alloys, some of the approaches may also be suitable for patterning other soft-conductors (e.g., conductive inks, pastes, elastomeric composites).

Methods to pattern liquid metals

Viscosity measurements of GaInSn eutectic alloys were performed in a homebuilt device for low (9%) and high (95%) relative humidity for shorter (450 min) and longer (1800 min) time periods. At constant exposure time a characteristic increase of viscosity is observed with increasing humidity. For high humidity, high viscosity is obtained after a short time. Assuming that the measured viscosity change is strongly related to the absorption of oxygen, XPS was applied to the chemical and quantitative analysis of differently prepared samples. In all cases, Ga is predominantly oxidized at the surface whereas Ga atoms in the metallic state are located deeper inside. Besides Ga 2 O 3 (the most stable oxide phase), the less stable Ga 2 O is detected. Indium and tin are almost stable in their metallic state. With increasing humidity the thickness of the oxide film increases in our case from about 19 A to 25 A, assuming a layer-by-layer model. The presented results confirm our assumption of the increase in viscosity of the GaInSn system as a consequence of the preferential oxidation of gallium in the near-surface region.

Viscosity effect on GaInSn studied by XPS

https://wiki.epfl.ch/mep/documents/MEP_2011-2012/wc-c%20coatings.pdf

Nanoscale multilayer WC/C coatings developed for nanopositioning: Part I. Microstructures and mechanical properties

Nanoscale multilayer WC/C coatings developed for nanopositioning, part II: Friction and wear

Sputtered yttrium oxide thin films appropriate for electrochemical sensors

Thin film coatings with dominant phases of WC1-x, W2C and WC, were prepared by magnetron sputtering. The microstructures and chemistry of the coatings were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The surface morphology and mechanical properties were examined by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and nanoindentation techniques. The tribological behaviour of the coatings was assessed by means of a microtribometer. Low hardness and indentation modulus of the W2C coatings were found to be from the high surface roughness. The W2C coatings were not wear resistant and were worn through in less than 15,000 cycles under a normal load of 40 mN. The WC1-X coatings were textured with the (200) plane parallel to the surface of substrate. The hardness and indentation modulus of the WC1-x coatings were ∼19 GPa and ∼600 GPa, respectively. A thick transfer layer was observed at the surface of the sphere employed in the sliding tests of the WC1-x coatings. The build-up and maintaining of this transfer layer was found to be important in determining the friction behaviour of the WC1-X coatings. A maximum hardness of ∼23 GPa and the lowest friction coefficient of 0.19 was obtained from the WC coating. In contrast to the large variation of the friction coefficients in the other coatings, the friction coefficient of WC was stable in the long-time running process.

Ch. Knedlik

Papers

Viscosity effect on GaInSn studied by XPS

Nanoscale multilayer WC/C coatings developed for nanopositioning: Part I. Microstructures and mechanical properties

Nanoscale multilayer WC/C coatings developed for nanopositioning, part II: Friction and wear

Sputtered yttrium oxide thin films appropriate for electrochemical sensors

Tribological characteristics of WC1-x, W2C and WC tungsten carbide films