Problem based learning is used in many medical schools in the United Kingdom and worldwide. This article describes this method of learning and teaching in small groups and explains why it has had an important impact on medical education.

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The group learning process: acquiring desirable learning skills

In problem based learning (PBL) students use “triggers” from the problem case or scenario to define their own learning objectives. Subsequently they do independent, self directed study before returning to the group to discuss and refine their acquired knowledge. Thus, PBL is not about problem solving per se, but rather it uses appropriate problems to increase knowledge and understanding. The process is clearly defined, and the several variations that exist all follow a similar series of steps.

#### Generic skills and attitudes

Group learning facilitates not only the acquisition of knowledge but also several other desirable attributes, such as communication skills, teamwork, problem solving, independent responsibility for learning, sharing information, and respect for others. PBL can therefore be thought of as a small group teaching method that combines the acquisition of knowledge with the development of generic skills and attitudes. Presentation of clinical material as the stimulus for learning enables students to understand the relevance of underlying scientific knowledge and principles in clinical practice.

However, when PBL is introduced into a curriculum, several other issues for curriculum design and implementation need to be tackled. PBL is generally introduced in the context of a defined core curriculum and integration of basic and clinical sciences. It has implications for staffing and learning resources and demands a different approach to timetabling, workload, and assessment. PBL is often used to deliver core material in non-clinical parts of the …

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https://www.cc-seas.columbia.edu/sites/dsa/files/what_is_PBL.pdf

Problem based learning

This chapter reviews the motivation for the change to problem-based learning, its definition, and the educational objectives it can serve. It discusses changing an established curriculum to problem-based learning and asks whether problem-based learning is worth the trouble.

Problem‐based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview

In problem-based learning, students working in collaborative groups learn by resolving complex, realistic problems under the guidance of faculty. In this chapter, we examine the evidence for effectiveness of the method to achieve its goals of fostering deep understandings of content and discuss the potential for developing process skills: research, negotiation and teamwork, writing, and verbal communication.

Problem-based learning

Advanced glycation endproducts—role in pathology of diabetic complications

Wheat is the most important staple crop in temperate zones and is in increasing demand in countries undergoing urbanization and industrialization. In addition to being a major source of starch and energy, wheat also provides substantial amounts of a number of components which are essential or beneficial for health, notably protein, vitamins (notably B vitamins), dietary fiber, and phytochemicals. Of these, wheat is a particularly important source of dietary fiber, with bread alone providing 20% of the daily intake in the UK, and well-established relationships between the consumption of cereal dietary fiber and reduced risk of cardio-vascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and forms of cancer (notably colo-rectal cancer). Wheat shows high variability in the contents and compositions of beneficial components, with some (including dietary fiber) showing high heritability. Hence, plant breeders should be able to select for enhanced health benefits in addition to increased crop yield.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/fes3.64

The contribution of wheat to human diet and health

Heat shock proteins in oncology: diagnostic biomarkers or therapeutic targets?

Extraction and modification technology of arabinoxylans from cereal by-products: A critical review

Ineffectual wound healing in hyperglycaemic patients suffering from diabetes mellitus is characterised by a reduction in capillary reformation (angiogenesis). Basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-2) is secreted by fibroblasts, macrophages and in particular endothelial cells (EC) in response to tissue injury and is important in promotion of neovascularisation. Recently, glycation of FGF-2 has been shown to significantly reduce its activity in vitro. We have examined the kinetics of FGF-2 glycation and compared its ability with that of native FGF-2 to activate mitogenesis, capillary formation and associated signal transduction in bovine aortic EC (BAEC). FGF-2 was exposed to 0.25 M glucose-6-phosphate (G-6-P) for 24–72 h and the degree of glycation determined by matrix assisted laser desorption ionisation mass spectrometry. Native FGF-2 was heterogeneous with Mw in the range 15,153.6–17,903 Da. After 24 h incubation with G-6-P there was evidence of glycation, and the mass increase corresponded to addition of 2.7 mol of G-6-P residues; after 48 h, 4 mol sugar was added and this increased to 8.7 after 72 h. Dimerisation of FGF-2 was observed after 72 h of treatment. Induction of mitogenesis in BAEC was significantly reduced by 25%–40% after treatment for 48–96 h with glycated (24 h) FGF-2 (gFGF-2;100 pg/ml–5 ng/ml; P < 0.05), whilst capillary tubule formation was significantly reduced by between 60% and 90% (100 pg/ml–1 ng/ml; P < 0.05) after 5 days compared to native FGF-2. Subsequent investigation of the signal transduction molecules associated with mitogenesis showed a reduction in FGF-2 induced tyrosine phosphorylated proteins of approximate Mw 20–150 kDa between 10 min and 24 h, in particular, mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK)/early response kinase (ERK-1, ERK-2), after glycation. To determine the reason for reduced angiogenic activity of gFGF-2, we compared its binding characteristics to that of native FGF-2. Total binding of gFGF-2 to the cell surface was significantly reduced in BAEC analysed by FACS compared to native FGF-2 (P < 0.05). Further investigation using 125I-labelled differentially washed samples, demonstrated a significant reduction in gFGF-2 binding to the high affinity tyrosine kinase receptor (46%) compared to native FGF-2. In summary, glycation of FGF-2 in vitro occurs rapidly within 24 h in the presence of elevated levels of G-6-P. Glycation caused a significant reduction in the ability of FGF-2 to bind to the tyrosine kinase receptor and activate signal transduction pathways responsible for both mitogenesis and capillary formation in BAEC. These results could help to explain the mechanism behind impaired wound healing in patients with diabetes mellitus.

Effect of glycation on basic fibroblast growth factor induced angiogenesis and activation of associated signal transduction pathways in vascular endothelial cells: Possible relevance to wound healing in diabetes

Global trends show that habitual omega-3 intakes are short of recommended guidelines, particularly amongst vegetarians. Subsequently, alternative dietary sources of long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC3PUFA) from vegetarian sources are needed. Food technology methods are advancing and nanoemulsion technologies have improved the bioavailability of certain lipid-based nutrients. This study examined whether ingestion of an omega-3 algal oil nanoemulsion led to improved bioavailability compared to the bulk oil. Eleven subjects completed a single-blind, randomised crossover trial, with a 21-day washout between interventions. Results demonstrated LC3PUFA absorption from the nanoemulsion was significantly higher than the bulk oil. Percentage blood fatty acids were significantly increased for docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (P ≤ 0.05) while LC3PUFA: PUFA ratios increased (P ≤ 0.05) and omega-6:omega-3 ratios were reduced (P = 0.028). Larger and longer intervention studies are now needed, but these preliminary findings demonstrate that nanoemulsion technology may improve the absorption of omega-3 fatty acids.

/pdf/the-bioavailability-of-an-omega-3-rich-algal-oil-is-improved-wru2jy8aaa.pdf

The bioavailability of an omega-3-rich algal oil is improved by nanoemulsion technology using yogurt as a food vehicle

The appearances of new editions of Molecular Biology of the Cell are major events in the educational world of cell biology. Indeed, in biology in general, since all biologists should appreciate the...

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3108/beej.11.r4

Christopher A. Smith

Papers

Heat shock proteins in oncology: diagnostic biomarkers or therapeutic targets?

Extraction and modification technology of arabinoxylans from cereal by-products: A critical review

Effect of glycation on basic fibroblast growth factor induced angiogenesis and activation of associated signal transduction pathways in vascular endothelial cells: Possible relevance to wound healing in diabetes

The bioavailability of an omega-3-rich algal oil is improved by nanoemulsion technology using yogurt as a food vehicle

Molecular Biology of the Cell (Fifth Edition)