Young massive clusters are dense aggregates of young stars that form the fundamental building blocks of galaxies. Several examples exist in the Milky Way Galaxy and the Local Group, but they are particularly abundant in starburst and interacting galaxies. The few young massive clusters that are close enough to resolve are of prime interest for studying the stellar mass function and the ecological interplay between stellar evolution and stellar dynamics. The distant unresolved clusters may be effectively used to study the star-cluster mass function, and they provide excellent constraints on the formation mechanisms of young cluster populations. Young massive clusters are expected to be the nurseries for many unusual objects, including a wide range of exotic stars and binaries. So far only a few such objects have been found in young massive clusters, although their older cousins, the globular clusters, are unusually rich in stellar exotica. In this review we focus on star clusters younger than $\sim100$ Myr, more than a few current crossing times old, and more massive than $\sim10^4$ \Msun, irrespective of cluster size or environment. We describe the global properties of the currently known young massive star clusters in the Local Group and beyond, and discuss the state of the art in observations and dynamical modeling of these systems. In order to make this review readable by observers, theorists, and computational astrophysicists, we also review the cross-disciplinary terminology.

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Young Massive Star Clusters

Using high resolution, fully cosmological smoothed particle hydrodynamical simulations of dwarf galaxies in a Lambda cold dark matter Universe, we show how high redshift gas outflows can modify the baryon angular momentum distribution and allow pure disc galaxies to form. We outline how galactic outflows preferentially remove low angular momentum material due a combination of (a) star formation peaking at high redshift in shallow dark matter potentials, an epoch when accreted gas has relatively low angular momentum, (b) the existence of an extended reservoir of high angular momentum gas in the outer disc to provide material for prolonged SF at later times and (c) the tendency for outflows to follow the path of least resistance which is perpendicular to the disc. We also show that outflows are enhanced during mergers, thus expelling much of the gas which has lost its angular momentum during these events, and preventing the formation of ‘classical’, merger driven bulges in low-mass systems. Stars formed prior to such mergers form a diffuse, extended stellar halo component similar to those detected in nearby dwarfs.

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Hierarchical formation of bulgeless galaxies: why outflows have low angular momentum

We use a combined imaging and spectroscopic survey of the nearby central cluster galaxy, M87, to assemble a sample of 34 confirmed ultra compact dwarfs (UCDs) with half-light radii of >~ 10 pc measured from Hubble Space Telescope images. This doubles the existing sample in M87, making it the largest such sample for any galaxy, while extending the detection of UCDs to unprecedentedly low luminosities (MV = -9). With this expanded sample, we find no correlation between size and luminosity, in contrast to previous suggestions, and no general correlation between size and galactocentric distance. We explore the relationships between UCDs, less luminous extended clusters (including faint fuzzies), globular clusters (GCs), as well as early-type galaxies and their nuclei, assembling an extensive new catalog of sizes and luminosities for stellar systems. Most of the M87 UCDs follow a tight color-magnitude relation, offset from the metal-poor GCs. This, along with kinematical differences, demonstrates that most UCDs are a distinct population from normal GCs, and not simply a continuation to larger sizes and higher luminosities. The UCD color-magnitude trend couples closely with that for Virgo dwarf elliptical nuclei. We conclude that the M87 UCDs are predominantly stripped nuclei. The brightest and reddest UCDs may be the remnant nuclei of more massive galaxies while a subset of the faintest UCDs may be tidally limited and related to more compact star clusters. In the broader context of galaxy assembly, blue UCDs may trace halo build-up by accretion of low-mass satellites, while red UCDs may be markers of metal-rich bulge formation in larger galaxies.

/pdf/the-relationships-among-compact-stellar-systems-a-fresh-view-nucol3r1wg.pdf

The Relationships Among Compact Stellar Systems: A Fresh View of Ultra Compact Dwarfs

As part of a major program to use isolated Local Group dwarf galaxies as near-field probes of cosmology, we have obtained deep images of the dwarf irregular galaxy Leo A with the Advanced Camera for Surveys aboard the Hubble Space Telescope. From these images we have constructed a color-magnitude diagram (CMD) reaching apparent [absolute] magnitudes of (M475, M814) (29.0 [+4.4], 27.9 [+3.4]), the deepest ever achieved for any irregular galaxy beyond the Magellanic Clouds. We derive the star formation rate (SFR) as a function of time over the entire history of the galaxy. We find that over 90% of all the star formation that ever occurred in Leo A happened more recently than 8 Gyr ago. The CMD shows only a very small amount of star formation in the first few billion years after the big bang; a possible burst at the oldest ages cannot be claimed with high confidence. The peak SFR occurred ≈1.5-4 Gyr ago, at a level 5-10 times the current value. Our modeling indicates that Leo A has experienced very little metallicity evolution; the mean inferred metallicity is consistent with measurements of the present-day gas-phase oxygen abundance. We cannot exclude a scenario in which all of the ancient star formation occurred prior to the end of the era of reionization, but it seems unlikely that the lack of star formation prior to ≈8 Gyr ago was due to early loss or exhaustion of the in situ gas reservoir.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/516711/pdf

Leo A: A late-blooming survivor of the epoch of reionization in the local group

We use a combined imaging and spectroscopic survey of the nearby central cluster galaxy, M87, to assemble a sample of 34 confirmed ultracompact dwarfs (UCDs) with half-light radii of 210 pc measured from Hubble Space Telescope images. This doubles the existing sample in M87, making it the largest such sample for any galaxy, while extending the detection of UCDs to unprecedentedly low luminosities (MV =− 9). With this expanded sample, we find no correlation between size and luminosity, in contrast to previous suggestions, and no general correlation between size and galactocentric distance. We explore the relationships between UCDs, less luminous extended clusters (including faint fuzzies), globular clusters (GCs), as well as early-type galaxies and their nuclei, assembling an extensive new catalog of sizes and luminosities for stellar systems. Most of the M87 UCDs follow a tight color–magnitude relation, offset from the metal-poor GCs. This, along with kinematical differences, demonstrates that most UCDs are a distinct population from normal GCs, and not simply a continuation to larger sizes and higher luminosities. The UCD color–magnitude trend couples closely with that for Virgo dwarf elliptical nuclei. We conclude that the M87 UCDs are predominantly stripped nuclei. The brightest and reddest UCDs may be the remnant nuclei of more massive galaxies while a subset of the faintest UCDs may be tidally limited and related to more compact star clusters. In the broader context of galaxy assembly, blue UCDs may trace halo build-up by accretion of low-mass satellites, while red UCDs may be markers of metal-rich bulge formation in larger galaxies.

/pdf/the-relationships-among-compact-stellar-systems-a-fresh-view-70m9t1pj4o.pdf

The relationships among compact stellar systems: a fresh view of ultracompact dwarfs

We have studied Leo A, an isolated and extremely gas-rich dwarf irregular galaxy of very low stellar mass and metallicity. Ages of the stellar populations in Leo A range from ~10 Myr to ~10 Gyr. Here we report the discovery of an old stellar halo and a sharp stellar edge. We also find that the distribution of stars extends beyond the gaseous envelope of the galaxy. Therefore, by its structure as well as stellar and gaseous content, Leo A is found to resemble massive disk galaxies. This implies that galaxies of very low stellar mass are also able to develop complex structures, challenging contemporary understanding of galaxy evolution.

The Full-fledged Dwarf Irregular Galaxy Leo A*

We have studied Leo A - the isolated and extremely gas rich dwarf irregular galaxy of very low stellar mass and metallicity. Ages of the stellar populations in Leo A are ranging from ~10 Myr to ~10 Gyr. Here we report the discovery of an old stellar halo and a sharp stellar edge. Also we find the distribution of stars extending beyond the gaseous envelope of the galaxy. Therefore, Leo A by its structure as well as stellar and gaseous content is found to resemble massive disk galaxies. This implies that galaxies of very low stellar mass are also able to develop complex structures, challenging contemporary understanding of galaxy evolution.

Full-Fledged Dwarf Irregular Galaxy Leo A

We report a discovery of an extended globular-like star cluster, M33-EC1, at the outer edge of the spiral galaxy M33. The distance to the cluster is 890 kpc, and it lies at a 12.5 kpc projected distance from the center of M33. Old age (>~7 Gyr) and low metallicity ([M/H] <~ -1.4) are estimated on the basis of isochrone fits. Color-magnitude diagrams of stars, located in the cluster's area, photometric and structural parameters of the cluster are presented. Cluster's luminosity (M_V = -6.6) and half-light radius (r_h = 20.3 pc) are comparable to those of the extended globular clusters, discovered in more luminous Local Group galaxies, the Milky Way and M31. Extended globular clusters are suspected to be remnants of accreted dwarf galaxies, and the finding of such a cluster in the late-type dwarf spiral galaxy M33 would imply a complex merging history in the past.

An extended star cluster at the outer edge of the spiral galaxy M33

We report the discovery of an extended globular-like star cluster, M 33-EC1, at the outer edge of the spiral galaxy M 33. The distance to the cluster is 890 kpc, and it lies at a projected distance of 12.5 kpc from the center of M 33. Old age (7 Gyr) and low metallicity ([M/H] –1.4) are estimated on the basis of isochrone fits. Color-magnitude diagrams of stars, located in the cluster's area, and photometric and structural parameters of the cluster are presented. The cluster's luminosity (MV = –6.6) and half-light radius (r h = 20.3 pc) are comparable to those of the extended globular clusters, discovered in more luminous Local Group galaxies, the Milky Way and M 31. Extended globular clusters are suspected to be remnants of accreted dwarf galaxies, and the finding of such a cluster in the late-type dwarf spiral galaxy M 33 would imply a complex merging history in the past.

An extended star cluster at the outer edge of the spiral galaxy m 33

We have carried out a survey of compact star clusters (apparent size 015 arcsec (>06 pc) We derived cluster parameters based on the photometric data and multiband images by employing simple stellar population models The clusters have a wide range of ages from ~5 Myr (young objects associated with 24 um and/or Ha emission) to ~10 Gyr (globular cluster candidates), and possess mass in a range of 30 < log(m/M_sol) < 43 peaking at m ~ 4000 M_sol Typical age of these intermediate-mass clusters is in the range of 30 Myr < t < 3 Gyr, with a prominent peak at ~70 Myr These findings suggest a rich intermediate-mass star cluster population in M31, which appears to be scarce in the Milky Way galaxy

D. Narbutis

Papers

The Full-fledged Dwarf Irregular Galaxy Leo A*

Full-Fledged Dwarf Irregular Galaxy Leo A

An extended star cluster at the outer edge of the spiral galaxy M33

An extended star cluster at the outer edge of the spiral galaxy m 33

Compact Star Clusters in the M31 Disk