Showing papers by "Darren J. Croton published in 2009"

Mergers and Bulge Formation in Lambda-CDM: Which Mergers Matter?

Abstract: We use a suite of semi-empirical models to predict galaxy merger rates and contributions to bulge growth as functions of merger mass, redshift, and mass ratio. The models use empirical halo occupation constraints to identify mergers, together with high-resolution simulations to quantify how mergers with different properties contribute to the bulge population. We find good agreement with a variety of observational constraints, and provide fitting functions for merger rates and contributions to bulge growth. We identify several robust conclusions. (1) Major mergers dominate formation and assembly of L* bulges and the spheroid mass density, minor mergers contribute ~30%. (2) This is mass-dependent: bulge formation is dominated by more minor mergers in lower-mass systems. At higher masses, bulges form in major mergers near L*, but subsequently assemble in minor mergers. (3) The minor/major contribution is also morphology-dependent: higher B/T systems form in more major mergers, lower B/T systems form in situ from minor mergers. (4) Low-mass galaxies, being gas-rich, require more major mergers to reach the same B/T as high-mass systems. (5) Absolute merger rates increase with galaxy mass. (6) Predicted rates agree well with observations, but suggest that some morphology-selected samples include contamination from minor mergers. (7) Predicted rates agree with integrated growth in bulge mass with cosmic time, but with factor ~2 uncertainty - half the bulge mass density could come from non-mergers. We consider ~1000 model variations and quantify resulting uncertainties. Conclusions regarding the major/minor contribution to bulge growth are very robust, absolute merger rates have systematic factor ~2 uncertainties.

Statistical analysis of galaxy surveys – I. Robust error estimation for two-point clustering statistics

Abstract: We present a test of different error estimators for two-point clustering statistics, appropriate for present and future large galaxy redshift surveys Using an ensemble of very large dark matter ACDM N-body simulations, we compare internal error estimators (jackknife and bootstrap) to external ones (Monte Carlo realizations) For three-dimensional clustering statistics, we find that none of the internal error methods investigated is able to reproduce either accurately or robustly the errors of external estimators on 1 to 25 h ―1 Mpc scales The standard bootstrap overestimates the variance of ξ (s) by ∼40 per cent on all scales probed, but recovers, in a robust fashion, the principal eigenvectors of the underlying covariance matrix The jackknife returns the correct variance on large scales, but significantly overestimates it on smaller scales This scale dependence in the jackknife affects the recovered eigenvectors, which tend to disagree on small scales with the external estimates Our results have important implications for fitting models to galaxy clustering measurements For example, in a two-parameter fit to the projected correlation function, we find that the standard bootstrap systematically overestimates the 95 per cent confidence interval, while the jackknife method remains biased, but to a lesser extent Ignoring the systematic bias, the scatter between realizations, for Gaussian statistics, implies that a 2σ confidence interval, as inferred from an internal estimator, corresponds in practice to anything from 1σ to 3σ By oversampling the subvolumes, we find that it is possible, at least for the cases we consider, to obtain robust bootstrap variances and confidence intervals that agree with external error estimates Our results are applicable to two-point statistics, like ξ(s) and w p (r p ), measured in large redshift surveys, and show that the interpretation of clustering measurements with internally estimated errors should be treated with caution

AEGIS: THE CLUSTERING OF X-RAY ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEUS RELATIVE TO GALAXIES AT z ∼ 1

Abstract: We measure the clustering of nonquasar X-ray active galactic nucleus (AGN) at z = 0.7-1.4 in the AEGIS field. Using the cross-correlation of 113 Chandra-selected AGN, with a median log L X = 42.8 erg s–1, with ~5000 DEEP2 galaxies, we find that the X-ray AGNs are fitted by a power law with a clustering scale length of r 0 = 5.95 ± 0.90 h –1 Mpc and slope γ = 1.66 ± 0.22. X-ray AGNs have a similar clustering amplitude as red, quiescent and "green" transition galaxies at z ~ 1 and are significantly more clustered than blue, star-forming galaxies. The X-ray AGN clustering strength is primarily determined by the host galaxy color; AGNs in red host galaxies are significantly more clustered than AGNs in blue host galaxies, with a relative bias that is similar to that of red to blue DEEP2 galaxies. We detect no dependence of clustering on optical brightness, X-ray luminosity, or hardness ratio within the ranges probed here. We find evidence for galaxies hosting X-ray AGN to be more clustered than a sample of galaxies with matching joint optical color and magnitude distributions. This implies that galaxies hosting X-ray AGN are more likely to reside in groups and more massive dark matter halos than galaxies of the same color and luminosity without an X-ray AGN. In comparison to optically selected quasars in the DEEP2 fields, we find that X-ray AGNs at z ~ 1 are more clustered than optically selected quasars (with a 2.6σ significance) and therefore may reside in more massive dark matter halos. Our results are consistent with galaxies undergoing a quasar phase while in the blue cloud before settling on the red sequence with a lower-luminosity X-ray AGN, if they are similar objects at different evolutionary stages.

Simulation of the cosmic evolution of atomic and molecular hydrogen in galaxies

Abstract: We present a simulation of the cosmic evolution of the atomic and molecular phases of the cold hydrogen gas in about 3x10^7 galaxies, obtained by postprocessing the virtual galaxy catalog produced by De Lucia & Blaizot on the Millennium Simulation of cosmic structure. Our method uses a set of physical prescriptions to assign neutral atomic hydrogen (HI) and molecular hydrogen (H2) to galaxies, based on their total cold gas masses and a few additional galaxy properties. These prescriptions are specially designed for large cosmological simulations, where, given current computational limitations, individual galaxies can only be represented by simplistic model objects with a few global properties. Our recipes allow us to (1) split total cold gas masses between HI, H2, and helium, (2) assign realistic sizes to both the HI and H2 disks, and (3) evaluate the corresponding velocity profiles and shapes of the characteristic radio emission lines. The results presented in this paper include the local HI and H2 mass functions, the CO luminosity function, the cold gas mass-diameter relation, and the Tully-Fisher relation (TFR), which all match recent observational data from the local universe. We also present high-redshift predictions of cold gas diameters and the TFR, both of which appear to evolve markedly with redshift.

AEGIS: The Clustering of X-ray AGN Relative to Galaxies at z~1

Abstract: We measure the clustering of non-quasar X-ray AGN at z=0.7-1.4 in the AEGIS field. Using the cross-correlation of 113 Chandra-selected AGN, with a median log L_X=42.8 erg s^-1, with ~5,000 DEEP2 galaxies, we find that the X-ray AGN are fit by a power law with a clustering scale length of r_0=5.95 +/-0.90 h^-1 Mpc and slope gamma=1.66 +/-0.22. X-ray AGN have a similar clustering amplitude as red, quiescent and `green' transition galaxies at z~1 and are significantly more clustered than blue, star-forming galaxies. The X-ray AGN clustering strength is primarily determined by the host galaxy color; AGN in red host galaxies are significantly more clustered than AGN in blue host galaxies, with a relative bias that is similar to that of red to blue DEEP2 galaxies. We detect no dependence of clustering on optical brightness, X-ray luminosity, or hardness ratio within the ranges probed here. We find evidence for galaxies hosting X-ray AGN to be more clustered than a sample of galaxies with matching joint optical color and magnitude distributions. This implies that galaxies hosting X-ray AGN are more likely to reside in groups and more massive dark matter halos than galaxies of the same color and luminosity without an X-ray AGN. In comparison to optically-selected quasars in the DEEP2 fields, we find that X-ray AGN at z~1 are more clustered than optically-selected quasars (with a 2.6-sigma significance) and therefore likely reside in more massive dark matter halos. Our results are consistent with galaxies undergoing a quasar phase while in the blue cloud before settling on the red sequence with a lower-luminosity X-ray AGN, if they are similar objects at different evolutionary stages.

The SAURON project - XV. Modes of star formation in early-type galaxies and the evolution of the red sequence

Abstract: We combine SAURON integral field data of a representative sample of local early-type, red sequence galaxies with Spitzer/IRAC imaging in order to investigate the presence of trace star formation in these systems. With the Spitzer data, we identify galaxies hosting low-level star formation, as traced by PAH emission, with measured star formation rates that compare well to those estimated from other tracers. This star formation proceeds according to established scaling relations with molecular gas content, in surface density regimes characteristic of disk galaxies and circumnuclear starbursts. We find that star formation in early-type galaxies happens exclusively in fast-rotating systems and occurs in two distinct modes. In the first, star formation is a diffuse process, corresponding to widespread young stellar populations and high molecular gas content. The equal presence of co- and counter-rotating components in these systems strongly implies an external origin for the star-forming gas, and we argue that these star formation events may be the final stages of (mostly minor) mergers that build up the bulges of red sequence lenticulars. In the second mode of star formation, the process is concentrated into well-defined disk or ring morphologies, outside of which the host galaxies exhibit uniformly evolved stellar populations. This implies that these star formation events represent rejuvenations within previously quiescent stellar systems. Evidence for earlier star formation events similar to these in all fast rotating early-type galaxies suggests that this mode of star formation may be common to all such galaxies, with a duty cycle of roughly 1/10, and likely contributes to the embedded, co-rotating inner stellar disks ubiquitous in this population.

A simple model to link the properties of quasars to the properties of dark matter haloes out to high redshift

Abstract: We present a simple model of how quasars occupy dark matter haloes from z = 0 to 5 using the observed m BH -σ relation and quasar luminosity functions. This provides a way for observers to statistically infer host halo masses for quasar observations using luminosity and redshift alone. Our model is deliberately simple and sidesteps any need to explicitly describe the physics. In spite of its simplicity, the model reproduces many key observations and has predictive power: (i) model quasars have the correct luminosity function (by construction) and spatial clustering (by consequence); (ii) we predict high-redshift quasars of a given luminosity live in less massive dark matter haloes than the same luminosity quasars at low redshifts; (iii) we predict a factor of ∼5 more 10 8.5 M ⊙ black holes at z ∼ 2 than is currently observed; (iv) we predict a factor of ∼20 evolution in the amplitude of the m BH -M halo relation between z = 5 and the present day; (v) we expect luminosity-dependent quasar lifetimes of between t Q ∼ 10 7 and 10 8 yr, but which may become as short as 10 5-6 yr for quasars brighter than L* and (vi) while little luminosity-dependent clustering evolution is expected at z ≤ 1, increasingly strong evolution is predicted for L > L* quasars at higher redshifts. These last two results arise from the narrowing distribution of halo masses that quasars occupy as the Universe ages. We also deconstruct both 'downsizing' and 'upsizing' trends predicted by the model at different redshifts and space densities. Importantly, this work illustrates how current observations cannot distinguish between more complicated physically motivated quasar models and our simple phenomenological approach. It highlights the opportunities such methodologies provide.

A simple model to link the properties of quasars to the properties of dark matter halos out to high redshift

Abstract: We present a simple model of how quasars occupy dark matter halos from z=0 to z=5 using the observed mBH-sigma relation and quasar luminosity functions. This provides a way for observers to statistically infer host halo masses for quasar observations using luminosity and redshift alone. Our model is deliberately simple and sidesteps any need to explicitly describe the physics. In spite of its simplicity, the model reproduces many key observations and has predictive power: 1) model quasars have the correct luminosity function (by construction) and spatial clustering (by consequence); 2) we predict high redshift quasars of a given luminosity live in less massive dark matter halos than the same luminosity quasars at low redshifts; 3) we predict a factor of ~5 more 10^8.5Msun black holes at z~2 than is currently observed; 4) we predict a factor of ~20 evolution in the amplitude of the mBH-Mhalo relation between z=5 and the present day; 5) we expect luminosity dependent quasar lifetimes of between tQ~10^(7-8)yr, but which may become as short as 10^(5-6)yr for quasars brighter than L*; 6) while little luminosity dependent clustering evolution is expected at z L* quasars at higher redshifts. These last two results arise from the narrowing distribution of halo masses that quasars occupy as the Universe ages. We also deconstruct both "downsizing" and "upsizing" trends predicted by the model at different redshifts and space densities. Importantly, this work illustrates how current observations cannot distinguish between more complicated physically motivated quasar models and our simple phenomenological approach. It highlights the opportunities such methodologies provide.

The DEEP2 Galaxy Redshift Survey: The Red Sequence AGN Fraction and its Environment and Redshift Dependence

Abstract: We measure the dependence of the active galactic nuclei (AGN) fraction on local environment at z ∼ 1, using spectroscopic data taken from the DEEP2 Galaxy Redshift Survey, and Chandra X-ray data from the All-Wavelength Extended Groth Strip International Survey (AEGIS). To provide a clean sample of AGN, we restrict our analysis to the red sequence population; this also reduces additional colour-environment correlations. We find evidence that high-redshift LINERs in DEEP2 tend to favour higher density environments relative to the red population from which they are drawn. In contrast, Seyferts and X-ray selected AGN at z ∼ 1 show little (or no) environmental dependencies within the same underlying population. We compare these results with a sample of local AGN drawn from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). Contrary to the high-redshift behaviour, we find that both LINERs and Seyferts in the SDSS show a slowly declining red sequence AGN fraction towards high-density environments. Interestingly, at z ∼ 1 red sequence Seyferts and LINERs are approximately equally abundant. By z ∼ 0, however, the red Seyfert population has declined relative to the LINER population by over a factor of ∼4.5. We speculate on possible interpretations of our results.

Simulation of the Cosmic Evolution of Atomic and Molecular Hydrogen in Galaxies

Abstract: We present a simulation of the cosmic evolution of the atomic and molecular phases of the cold hydrogen gas in about 3e7 galaxies, obtained by post-processing the virtual galaxy catalog produced by (De Lucia et al. 2007) on the Millennium Simulation of cosmic structure (Springel et al. 2005). Our method uses a set of physical prescriptions to assign neutral atomic hydrogen (HI) and molecular hydrogen (H2) to galaxies, based on their total cold gas masses and a few additional galaxy properties. These prescriptions are specially designed for large cosmological simulations, where, given current computational limitations, individual galaxies can only be represented by simplistic model-objects with a few global properties. Our recipes allow us to (i) split total cold gas masses between HI, H2, and Helium, (ii) assign realistic sizes to both the HI- and H2-disks, and (iii) evaluate the corresponding velocity profiles and shapes of the characteristic radio emission lines. The results presented in this paper include the local HI- and H2-mass functions, the CO-luminosity function, the cold gas mass--diameter relation, and the Tully-Fisher relation (TFR), which all match recent observational data from the local Universe. We also present high-redshift predictions of cold gas diameters and the TFR, both of which appear to evolve markedly with redshift.