Along with extensive research on the three-dimensional (3D) printing of polymers and metals, 3D printing of ceramics is now the latest trend to come under the spotlight. The ability to fabricate ceramic components of arbitrarily complex shapes has been extremely challenging without 3D printing. This review focuses on the latest advances in the 3D printing of ceramics and presents the historical origins and evolution of each related technique. The main technical aspects, including feedstock properties, process control, post-treatments and energy source–material interactions, are also discussed. The technical challenges and advice about how to address these are presented. Comparisons are made between the techniques to facilitate the selection of the best ones in practical use. In addition, representative applications of the 3D printing of various types of ceramics are surveyed. Future directions are pointed out on the advancement on materials and forming mechanism for the fabrication of high-performance ceramic components.

3D printing of ceramics: A review

Review on titanium and titanium based alloys as biomaterials for orthopaedic applications.

Additive manufacturing of biomaterials.

3D printing alias additive manufacturing can transform 3D virtual models created by computer-aided design (CAD) into physical 3D objects in a layer-by-layer manner dispensing with conventional molding or machining. Since the incipiency, significant advancements have been achieved in understanding the process of 3D printing and the relationship of component, structure, property and application of the created objects. Because hydrogels are one of the most feasible classes of ink materials for 3D printing and this field has been rapidly advancing, this Review focuses on hydrogel designs and development of advanced hydrogel-based biomaterial inks and bioinks for 3D printing. It covers 3D printing techniques including laser printing (stereolithography, two-photon polymerization), extrusion printing (3D plotting, direct ink writing), inkjet printing, 3D bioprinting, 4D printing and 4D bioprinting. It provides a comprehensive overview and discussion of the tailorability of material, mechanical, physical, chemical and biological properties of hydrogels to enable advanced hydrogel designs for 3D printing. The range of hydrogel-forming polymers covered encompasses biopolymers, synthetic polymers, polymer blends, nanocomposites, functional polymers, and cell-laden systems. The representative biomedical applications selected demonstrate how hydrogel-based 3D printing is being exploited in tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, cancer research, in vitro disease modeling, high-throughput drug screening, surgical preparation, soft robotics and flexible wearable electronics. Incomparable by thermoplastics, thermosets, ceramics and metals, hydrogel-based 3D printing is playing a pivotal role in the design and creation of advanced functional (bio)systems in a customizable way. An outlook on future directions of hydrogel-based 3D printing is presented.

3D printing of hydrogels: Rational design strategies and emerging biomedical applications

Bone tissue engineering has been continuously developing since the concept of “tissue engineering” has been proposed. Biomaterials that are used as the basic material for the fabrication of scaffolds play a vital role in bone tissue engineering. This paper first introduces a strategy for literature search. Then, it describes the structure, mechanical properties and materials of natural bone and the strategies of bone tissue engineering. Particularly, it focuses on the current knowledge about biomaterials used in the fabrication of bone tissue engineering scaffolds, which includes the history, types, properties and applications of biomaterials. The effects of additives such as signaling molecules, stem cells, and functional materials on the performance of the scaffolds are also discussed.

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Biomaterials for bone tissue engineering scaffolds: a review

Compositionally graded doped hydroxyapatite coating on titanium using laser and plasma spray deposition for bone implants

Mechanical and biological properties of ZnO, SiO2, and Ag2O doped plasma sprayed hydroxyapatite coating for orthopaedic and dental applications.

Porous tricalcium phosphate (TCP) scaffolds are becoming more and more important for treating musculoskeletal diseases. With the maturation of 3D printing (3DP) technology in the past two decades, porous TCP scaffolds can also be easily prepared with complex design and high dimensional accuracy. However, the mechanical and biological properties of porous TCP scaffolds prepared by 3D printing still need improvements. In this study, novel 3D printed TCP and MgO/ZnO-TCP scaffolds were prepared by an binder-jet 3D printer. Scaffolds had a dense core and porous surface feature with a designed pore size of 500 μm and a designed porosity of 18%. After printing, scaffolds were sintered in a muffle furnace at 1250 °C. The presence of MgO and ZnO increased the surface area of TCP from 1.18 ± 0.01 m2/g to 2.65 ± 0.02 m2/g, the bulk density from 37.89 ± 0.83% to 50.82 ± 1.10%, and the compressive strength from 17.94 ± 1.65 MPa to 27.46 ± 2.63 MPa. Enhanced osteoblast proliferation was shown in doped 3D printed TCP scaffolds compared to the pure 3DP TCP. In addition, the use of 3D printing as well as dense core and porous surface design enhanced the surface roughness and osteoblast proliferation of TCP scaffolds. This novel 3D printed MgO/ZnO-TCP scaffold shows enhanced mechanical and biological properties, which is promising for orthopedic and dental applications.

Effects of pore distribution and chemistry on physical, mechanical, and biological properties of tricalcium phosphate scaffolds by binder-jet 3D printing

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Dongxu Ke

Papers

Additive manufacturing of biomaterials.

Compositionally graded doped hydroxyapatite coating on titanium using laser and plasma spray deposition for bone implants

Mechanical and biological properties of ZnO, SiO2, and Ag2O doped plasma sprayed hydroxyapatite coating for orthopaedic and dental applications.

Effects of pore distribution and chemistry on physical, mechanical, and biological properties of tricalcium phosphate scaffolds by binder-jet 3D printing

Effects of MgO, ZnO, SrO, and SiO2 in tricalcium phosphate scaffolds on in vitro gene expression and in vivo osteogenesis.