With the completion of the Arabidopsis genome sequencing project, the next major challenge is the large-scale determination of gene function. As a model organism for agricultural biotechnology, Arabidopsis presents the opportunity to provide key insights into the way that gene function can affect commercial crop production. In an attempt to aid in the rapid discovery of gene function, we have established a high throughput phenotypic analysis process based on a series of defined growth stages that serve both as developmental landmarks and as triggers for the collection of morphological data. The data collection process has been divided into two complementary platforms to ensure the capture of detailed data describing Arabidopsis growth and development over the entire life of the plant. The first platform characterizes early seedling growth on vertical plates for a period of 2 weeks. The second platform consists of an extensive set of measurements from plants grown on soil for a period of approximately 2 months. When combined with parallel processes for metabolic and gene expression profiling, these platforms constitute a core technology in the high throughput determination of gene function. We present here analyses of the development of wild-type Columbia (Col-0) plants and selected mutants to illustrate a framework methodology that can be used to identify and interpret phenotypic differences in plants resulting from genetic variation and/or environmental stress.

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Growth Stage –Based Phenotypic Analysis of Arabidopsis: A Model for High Throughput Functional Genomics in Plants

Reflectance measurement of canopy biomass and nitrogen status in wheat crops using normalized difference vegetation indices and partial least squares regression

The foregoing paper by Lorenz et al. (1995), translated into English by P. May, describes a new system for the identification of grapevine growth stages called the BBCH system. This is an adaptation, for the grapevine, of a basic scale developed to cover all monocot and dicot crops. Appraisal of this and two other systems has led to a preference for that by Eichhorn and Lorenz (1977) but with some amendments. These amendments are discussed and a new system of measurement and description of stages of the grapevine is proposed which copes with the dual needs for a simple listing of major stages and, at the same time, provides intermediate detailed stages. It is called the Modified E-L system.

Growth Stages of the Grapevine: Adoption of a system for identifying grapevine growth stages

Plant phenology, the annually recurring sequence of plant developmental stages, is important for plant functioning and ecosystem services and their biophysical and biogeochemical feedbacks to the climate system. Plant phenology depends on temperature, and the current rapid climate change has revived interest in understanding and modeling the responses of plant phenology to the warming trend and the consequences thereof for ecosystems. Here, we review recent progresses in plant phenology and its interactions with climate change. Focusing on the start (leaf unfolding) and end (leaf coloring) of plant growing seasons, we show that the recent rapid expansion in ground- and remote sensing- based phenology data acquisition has been highly beneficial and has supported major advances in plant phenology research. Studies using multiple data sources and methods generally agree on the trends of advanced leaf unfolding and delayed leaf coloring due to climate change, yet these trends appear to have decelerated or even reversed in recent years. Our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the plant phenology responses to climate warming is still limited. The interactions between multiple drivers complicate the modeling and prediction of plant phenology changes. Furthermore, changes in plant phenology have important implications for ecosystem carbon cycles and ecosystem feedbacks to climate, yet the quantification of such impacts remains challenging. We suggest that future studies should primarily focus on using new observation tools to improve the understanding of tropical plant phenology, on improving process-based phenology modeling, and on the scaling of phenology from species to landscape-level.

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Plant phenology and global climate change: Current progresses and challenges

The large area of rice (Oryza sativa L) production worldwide is critical to the well being of large numbers of the world's people Yet for rice, the most important single plant species for human nutrition, there is not a widely used growth staging system Despite good points of the published rice growth staging systems, none has been used widely for describing rice growth and development Consequently, an objective growth staging system with enumeration adapted to cumulative leaf number (CLN) would improve communication among scientists, farmers, and educators We propose a rice developmental staging system divided into three main phases of development: seedling, vegetative, and reproductive Seedling development consists of four growth stages: unimbibed seed (S0), radicle and coleoptile emergence from the seed (S1,S2), and prophyll emergence from the coleoptile (S3) Vegetative development consists of stages V1, V2 VN; N being equal to the final number of leaves with collars on the main stem Reproductive development consists of 10 growth stages based on discrete morphological criteria: panicle initiation (R0), panicle differentiation (R1), flag leaf collar formation (R2), panicle exertion (R3), anthesis (R4), grain length and width expansion (R5), grain depth expansion (R6), grain dry down (R7), single grain maturity (R8), and complete panicle maturity (R9) Assigning rice growth stages based on discrete morphological criteria will result in unambiguous growth-stage determination For example, using this system, two people staging the same plant will arrive at the same growth stage This is because the system exploits the presence or absence of distinct morphological criteria in a symbolic logic dichotomous framework that only permits yes or no answers

A Uniform, Objective, and Adaptive System for Expressing Rice Development

Summary
A universal scale (to be known as the BBCH scale) using a decimal code for the description of the growth stages of most agricultural crops and weeds is proposed. The scale and codes are based on the well-known Zadoks code for cereals.

Developmentally similar growth stages of different crops are given the same codes. The general scale provides a framework within which more specific scales for individual crops may be constructed. The uniformity of the scale makes it easy to remember and use in agricultural practice and simplifies storage and retrieval in a computer system.

A description of the general scale is given followed by specific scales for cereals, rice, maize, oilseed rape, field beans, peas and sunflower. Comparisons with scales currently in use are given where appropriate.

A uniform decimal code for growth stages of crops and weeds

The growth stages of development of many cultivated plants have been described by numerous scientists according to the principles of the extended BBCH scale within the last 19 years. The BBCH scales are now well- known worldwide and are used by research, administration and practise in agriculture and horticulture, as in the phenology as an integrative science in environment, meteorology and climatology.

This fact indicates that the basic objectives and hope have been reached, justifying the practical approach taken by the authors of this scale. The BBCH scale is a contribution to improve the communication between different groups of scientists and to allow the interchange of data and scientific results in a transparent way. The BBCH scales have turned out helpful and practical. The aim to cause the harmonisation in the application of decimal codes for the description of the phenological growth stages of plants and weeds was reached. They also fulfilled the hope of the initiators to contribute with it to the improvement of the international agrarian-scientific and interdisciplinary communication.

This paper will describe the history and background of the BBCH scales. The original publications are described and explained with reference of the original literature sources. The paper will describe the different area of use of the scales and list the different scientific disciplines using them. The worldwide success of the BBCH scales is the work of many scientists around the globe.

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The BBCH system to coding the phenological growth stages of plants - history and publications.

Die erweiterte BBCH-Skala zur einheitlichen Codierung der phanologischen Entwicklungsstadien mono- und dikotyler Pflanzen ist eine Gemeinschaftsarbeit der Biologischen Bundesanstalt fur Land- und Forstwirtschaft (BBA), des Bundessortenamtes (BSA) und des Industrieverbandes Agrar (IV A). Grundprinzipien fur den allgemeinen Rahmen werden festgelegt -und der Aufbau der Skala beschrieben. Der Aufbau der Skala als Dezimal-Skala, aufgeteilt in Makro- und Mikrostadien, wurde bewust in Anlehnung an die von ZADOKS et al. (1974) entwickelte Getreideskala gewahlt, um grosere Umstellungen dieser allgemein gebrauchlichen und seit langem bewahrten Skala vermeiden zu konnen.Durch Einfuhrung eines Mesostadiums kann der zweistellige Code auf drei Stellen erweitert werden.Die Allgemeine BBCH-Skala stellt den verbindlichen Rahmen dar, innerhalb dessen spezielle Skalen fur wichtige mono- und dikotyle Pflanzen erarbeitet und an gleicher Stelle in loser Folge veroffentlicht werden. Diese Allgemeine Skala kann immer dann Anwendung finden, wenn keine spezielle Skala vorliegt.A uniform code for phenological growth stages of mono- and dicotyledonous plants - Extended BBCH scale, general -The extended BBCH scale for the uniform coding of phenologically identical growth stages of all mono- and dicotyledonous plants is presented. It results from the teamwork between Biologische Bundesanstalt fur Land- und Forstwirtschaft (BBA), Bundessortenamt (BSA) and Industrieverband Agrar (IVA).The principles of the general scale are explained. The decimal code (principal and secondary growth stages) is based on the well-known code developed by ZADOKS et al. (1974) and avoids major changes from this widely used phenological key. In some cases a three-digit code is offered additionally. The definitions and groupings employed for the general BBCH scale allow its universal utilisation in all mono- and dicotyledonous plants.The general BBCH scale represents the frame for the compilation of specific scales for the major plants which shall be published in the near future. This general scale can be used, when no specific crop and plant scale is available.

Einheitliche Codierung der phänologischen Entwicklungsstadien mono- und dikotyler Pflanzen. -Erweiterte BBCH-Skala, Allgemein-

Mit den ausfuhrlichen kulturspezifischen Beschreibungen sind die speziellen Skalen fur Fruchtgemuse und Hulsenfruchte als Erganzung zur "Allgemeinen BBCH-Skala" zu verstehen. Die phanologische Entwicklung wird in Entwicklungsphasen (Makrostadien) unterteilt und jede Phase in starker differenzierte Entwicklungsschritte (Mikrostadien). Jedem Entwicklungsschritt wird ein zweistelliger Code zugeordnet. Zur genaueren Beschreibung einzelner Entwicklungsabschnitte wird uber die Einfuhrung der Mesostadien, die als weitere Ordnungszahlen die Makrostadien unterteilen, eine Alternative angeboten. Phenological growth stages of vegetable crops II. Fruit vegetables and pulses The detailed crop specific description of the phenological growth stages of vegetable fruits and pulses are supplementary of the general BBCH scale. The phenological development of the vegetable is divided into growth phases (principal growth stages), each phase is subdivided into growth steps (secondary growth stages). A two-digit decimal code is assigned to each growth stage. For a more detailed description of specific stages a three-digit code is offered as an alternative. The insertion of the third digit allows to further divide principal growth stages. The deriving intervals are named "mesostages", they cover a range of secondary growth stages.

Phänologische Entwicklungsstadien von Gemüsepflanzen II. Fruchtgemüse und Hülsenfrüchte Codierung und Beschreibung nach der erweiterten BBCH-Skala - mit Abbildungen

Following the introduction of the general BBCH scale, the specific BBCH scale for the upland cotton plant is presented which provides crop-specific descriptions and detailed assessment instructions.

The development process of the plant is described by periods (principal growth stages) and steps (secondary growth stages).

A 2-digit decimal code suitable for data processing in crop production experiments is assigned to each step of development.

E. Weber

Papers

A uniform decimal code for growth stages of crops and weeds

The BBCH system to coding the phenological growth stages of plants - history and publications.

Einheitliche Codierung der phänologischen Entwicklungsstadien mono- und dikotyler Pflanzen. -Erweiterte BBCH-Skala, Allgemein-

Phänologische Entwicklungsstadien von Gemüsepflanzen II. Fruchtgemüse und Hülsenfrüchte Codierung und Beschreibung nach der erweiterten BBCH-Skala - mit Abbildungen

Phenological Growth Stages of the Cotton Plant (Gossypium hirsutum L.): Codification and Description according to the BBCH Scale