A process is disclosed for converting biomass to fuels and/or valuable chemicals. The process comprises the steps of a) activating biomass to make it more susceptible to conversion; c) partially converting the biomass to a solubilized material; and d) subjecting the unconverted biomass to a second conversion step. The process optionally comprises a step b) of adding a solvent to the activated biomass. In a preferred embodiment the solubilized biomass obtained in step c) is removed before the unconverted biomass is subjected to step d).

Process for the conversion of biomass to liquid fuels and specialty chemicals

Inhibition of aflatoxin production by cinnamon

A lack of foresight, as expressed by hindsight, led one investigator in the 1960s to label mycotoxicoses as the "neglected diseases" (Forgacs 1962). During the 1940s and 1950s, large numbers of microbial compounds, including those produced by fungi, were isolated and analyzed for their antibiotic potential. Those substances too toxic for consideration were set aside and soon forgotten. The conclusion was that compounds too toxic for beneficial application could be potentially detrimental to human and animal health if produced under natural circumstances. This concept was recognized and stated simply in 1913 by two investigators with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (Alsberg and Black 1913), butas so often happens with a simple, direct concept-it was forgotten. Similar observations were subsequently made by Japanese and Russian researchers, but language differences kept this information from the Western world. In 1961, English researchers initiated the modern era of mycotoxin research in publications announcing the "newly discovered" "turkey X disease." Subsequent studies led to the discovery of aflatoxins and the elucidation of their mechanism of action.

Mycotoxins and Mycotoxicoses

The Clinical Spectrum of Aspergillosis–Part 2: Classification and Description of Saprophytic, Allergic, and Invasive Variants of Human Disease

A strain of Aspergillus ochraceus Wilhelm, isolated from poultry feed, produced both penicillic acid and ochratoxin A. Studies demonstrating the ability of this fungus to colonize poultry feed and produce these two mycotoxins under various temperatures and moistures indicated that the interaction was complex. The optimal temperature for conidial development did not vary with moisture, but accumulation of both toxins did. A combination of low temperature, 15 or 22 C, and low moisture favored the production of penicillic acid, whereas high temperature, 30 C, and high moisture favored the production of ochratoxin A.

Production of penicillic acid and ochratoxin A on poultry feed by Aspergillus ochraceus: temperature and moisture requirements.

The solubilization of lignocellulosic fibrous material is accomplished by impregnating the selected lignocellulosic material with one of a group of certain swelling agents, allowing a sufficient amount of time until the desired degree of swelling is achieved, then subjecting the swollen fibers to irradiation from a gamma radiation source.

Solubilization of lignocellulosic materials

Chapter 1 - Fungal Toxins*

The effect of aflatoxin B1 on induced and constitutive enzyme synthesis was examined in strains of Bacillus cereus (NRRL B-569, NRRL B-3537) and Bacillus licheniformis (NRRL B-3560, NRRL B-3540). Although B1 partially blocked penicillinase elaboration in B. cereus after incubation with the toxin, the level of B1-mediated reduction in total protein synthesis was similar to the diminished production of penicillinase. Comparative studies on the effects of aflatoxin B1 and actinomycin D on enzyme synthesis and growth in B. licheniformis demonstrated that actinomycin D exerted a differential inhibitory effect on induction of penicillinase and α-glucosidase, whereas levels of reduction of enzyme production initiated by aflatoxin resembled toxin-mediated growth inhibition. Thus, the mode of action of aflatoxin B1 is not exclusively analogous to that of actinomycin D in B. licheniformis. However, induced-penicillinase production in B. licheniformis was enhanced by relatively low levels of both actinomycin D and a...

Eivind B. Lillehoj

Papers

Solubilization of lignocellulosic materials

Chapter 1 - Fungal Toxins*

Aflatoxin B1 effect on enzyme biosynthesis in Bacillus cereus and Bacillus licheniformis.

Microbiological decontamination of aflatoxin-contaminated edibles