▪ Abstract Socioeconomic status (SES) is one of the most widely studied constructs in the social sciences. Several ways of measuring SES have been proposed, but most include some quantification of family income, parental education, and occupational status. Research shows that SES is associated with a wide array of health, cognitive, and socioemotional outcomes in children, with effects beginning prior to birth and continuing into adulthood. A variety of mechanisms linking SES to child well-being have been proposed, with most involving differences in access to material and social resources or reactions to stress-inducing conditions by both the children themselves and their parents. For children, SES impacts well-being at multiple levels, including both family and neighborhood. Its effects are moderated by children's own characteristics, family characteristics, and external support systems.

Socioeconomic status and child development.

Although the association between maternal depression and adverse child outcomes is well established, the strength of the association, the breadth or specificity of the outcomes, and the role of moderators are not known This information is essential to inform not only models of risk but also the design of preventive interventions by helping to identify subgroups at greater risk than others and to elucidate potential mechanisms as targets of interventions A meta-analysis of 193 studies was conducted to examine the strength of the association between mothers’ depression and children’s behavioral problems or emotional functioning Maternal depression was significantly related to higher levels of internalizing, externalizing, and general psychopathology and negative affect/behavior and to lower levels of positive affect/behavior, with all associations small in magnitude These associations were significantly moderated by theoretically and methodologically relevant variables, with patterns of moderation found to vary somewhat with each child outcome Results are interpreted in terms of implications for theoretical models that move beyond main effects models in order to more accurately identify which children of depressed mothers are more or less at risk for specific outcomes

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Maternal Depression and Child Psychopathology: A Meta-Analytic Review

Given the proliferation of factor analysis applications in the literature, the present article examines the use of factor analysis in current published research across four psychological journals. ...

Use of Exploratory Factor Analysis in Published Research Common Errors and Some Comment on Improved Practice

Epidemiological data are reviewed on the prevalence, course, socio-demographic correlates, and societal costs of major depression throughout the world. Major depression is estimated in these surveys to be a commonly occurring disorder. Although estimates of lifetime prevalence and course vary substantially across countries for reasons that could involve both substantive and methodological processes, the cross-national data are clear in documenting meaningful lifetime prevalence with wide variation in age-of-onset and high risk of lifelong chronic-recurrent persistence. A number of sociodemographic correlates of major depression are found consistently across countries, and cross-national data also document associations with numerous adverse outcomes, including difficulties in role transitions (e.g., low education, high teen childbearing, marital disruption, unstable employment), reduced role functioning (e.g., low marital quality, low work performance, low earnings), elevated risk of onset, persistence and...

https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114409

The epidemiology of depression across cultures

Effects of perinatal mental disorders on the fetus and child

Maternal depression and parenting behavior: a meta-analytic review

The Parent Behavior Inventory (PBI) is a brief measure of parenting behavior for use with the parents of preschool-age and young school-age children. It may be used as a parent self-report measure, a report measure for others familiar with the parent, or as an observational rating scale. Its parallel forms offer clinicians and researchers a single measure capable of multimethod, multi-informant, and multisetting assessment. The PBI's two independent scales, Supportive/Engaged and Hostile/Coercive, have sufficient content validity, show adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability, and relate to measures of parental affect, parental stress, and child behavior problems. Evidence for its usefulness as a rating scale is presented. The results provide support for the reliability and construct validity of the PBI and demonstrate its versatility as a measure of parenting behavior.

Development and initial validation of the Parent Behavior Inventory

A new model of the etiology of sexual harassment,the four-factor model, is presented and compared with several models of sexual harassment including the biological model, the organizational model, the sociocultural model,and the sexrole spillover model A number of risk factors associated with sexually harassing behavior are examined within the framework of the four-factor model of sexual harassment These include characteristics of the work environment (eg, sexist attitudes among co-workers, unprofessional work environment, skewed sex ratios in the workplace, knowledge of grievance procedures for sexual harassment incidents) as well as personal characteristics of the subject (eg, physical attractiveness, job status, sexrole) Subjects were 266 university female faculty, staff, and students who completed the Sexual Experience Questionnaire to assess the experience of sexual harassment and a questionnaire designed to assess the risk factors stated above Results indicated that the four-factor model is a better predictor of sexual harassment than the alternative models The risk factors most strongly associated with sexual harassment were an unprofessional environment in the workplace, sexist atmosphere, and lack of knowledge about the organization's formal grievance procedures

Sexual harassment: identifying risk factors.

To better understand the possible stigmatizing effects of child sexual abuse, 60 teachers were asked to make multiple judgments about the behavior of a child described with one of four types of labels: (a) neutral; (b) dissimilar; (c) experienced a nonsexual trauma; and (d) experienced a sexual trauma (i.e., sexually abused). Teachers expected a child labeled as sexually abused to experience more stress than a child labeled as neutral or dissimilar, but not more stress than a child labeled as having experienced nonsexual trauma. No significant differences on other dependent variables (e.g., attributions for failure, expectations of future positive behavior) were found. Although these results suggest that teachers have different expectations for sexually abused children, they provide no evidence of stigmatization. To what extent these are realistic expectations or may serve as self-fulfilling prophecies is unclear.

Elizabeth O'Hare

Papers

Maternal depression and parenting behavior: a meta-analytic review

Development and initial validation of the Parent Behavior Inventory

Sexual harassment: identifying risk factors.

How do Teachers React to Children Labeled as Sexually Abused