The questionnaires from the field were received, checked and stored by the data processing personnel. They checked: 1. The completeness of the questionnaires 2. The correct bubbling 3. The correct number of questionnaires per household, if total males + total females > 8 as the questionnaire ONLY accommodated maximum of 8 household members. 4. The reference number appears in all the 10 pages of the questionnaires.

Population and Housing Census

Environmental contamination due to solid waste mismanagement is a global issue. Open dumping and open burning are the main implemented waste treatment and final disposal systems, mainly visible in low-income countries. This paper reviews the main impacts due to waste mismanagement in developing countries, focusing on environmental contamination and social issues. The activity of the informal sector in developing cities was also reviewed, focusing on the main health risks due to waste scavenging. Results reported that the environmental impacts are pervasive worldwide: marine litter, air, soil and water contamination, and the direct interaction of waste pickers with hazardous waste are the most important issues. Many reviews were published in the scientific literature about specific waste streams, in order to quantify its effect on the environment. This narrative literature review assessed global issues due to different waste fractions showing how several sources of pollution are affecting the environment, population health, and sustainable development. The results and case studies presented can be of reference for scholars and stakeholders for quantifying the comprehensive impacts and for planning integrated solid waste collection and treatment systems, for improving sustainability at a global level.

Waste Mismanagement in Developing Countries: A Review of Global Issues.

The safe disposal of human excreta is of paramount importance for the health and welfare of populations living in low income countries as well as the prevention of pollution to the surrounding environment. On-site sanitation (OSS) systems are the most numerous means of treating excreta in low income countries, these facilities aim at treating human waste at source and can provide a hygienic and affordable method of waste disposal. However, current OSS systems need improvement and require further research and development. Development of OSS facilities that treat excreta at, or close to, its source require knowledge of the waste stream entering the system. Data regarding the generation rate and the chemical and physical composition of fresh feces and urine was collected from the medical literature as well as the treatability sector. The data were summarized and statistical analysis was used to quantify the major factors that were a significant cause of variability. The impact of this data on biological processes, thermal processes, physical separators, and chemical processes was then assessed. Results showed that the median fecal wet mass production was 128 g/cap/day, with a median dry mass of 29 g/cap/day. Fecal output in healthy individuals was 1.20 defecations per 24 hr period and the main factor affecting fecal mass was the fiber intake of the population. Fecal wet mass values were increased by a factor of 2 in low income countries (high fiber intakes) in comparison to values found in high income countries (low fiber intakes). Feces had a median pH of 6.64 and were composed of 74.6% water. Bacterial biomass is the major component (25-54% of dry solids) of the organic fraction of the feces. Undigested carbohydrate, fiber, protein, and fat comprise the remainder and the amounts depend on diet and diarrhea prevalence in the population. The inorganic component of the feces is primarily undigested dietary elements that also depend on dietary supply. Median urine generation rates were 1.42 L/cap/day with a dry solids content of 59 g/cap/day. Variation in the volume and composition of urine is caused by differences in physical exertion, environmental conditions, as well as water, salt, and high protein intakes. Urine has a pH 6.2 and contains the largest fractions of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium released from the body. The urinary excretion of nitrogen was significant (10.98 g/cap/day) with urea the most predominant constituent making up over 50% of total organic solids. The dietary intake of food and fluid is the major cause of variation in both the fecal and urine composition and these variables should always be considered if the generation rate, physical, and chemical composition of feces and urine is to be accurately predicted.

/pdf/the-characterization-of-feces-and-urine-a-review-of-the-48jlbpxv0z.pdf

The Characterization of Feces and Urine: A Review of the Literature to Inform Advanced Treatment Technology

Towards global phosphorus security: A systems framework for phosphorus recovery and reuse options

Textile industry is one of the major industries in the world that provide employment with no required special skills and play a major role in the economy of many countries. There are three different types of fibres used in the manufacture of various textile products: cellulose fibres, protein fibres and synthetic fibres. Each type of fibre is dyed with different types of dyes. Cellulose fibres are dyed using reactive dyes, direct dyes, napthol dyes and indigo dyes. Protein fibres are dyed using acid dyes and lanaset dyes. Synthetic fibres are dyed using disperse dyes, basic dyes and direct dyes. The textile industry utilizes various chemicals and large amount of water during the production process. About 200 L of water are used to produce 1 kg of textile. The water is mainly used for application of chemicals onto the fibres and rinsing of the final products. The waste water produced during this process contains large amount of dyes and chemicals containing trace metals such as Cr, As, Cu and Zn which are capable of harming the environment and human health. The textile waste water can cause haemorrhage, ulceration of skin, nausea, skin irritation and dermatitis. The chemicals present in the water block the sunlight and increase the biological oxygen demand thereby inhibiting photosynthesis and reoxygenation process. The effluent water discharged from the textile industries undergoes various physio-chemical processes such as flocculation, coagulation and ozonation followed by biological treatments for the removal of nitrogen, organics, phosphorous and metal. The whole treatment process involves three steps: primary treatment, secondary treatment and tertiary treatment. The primary treatment involves removal of suspended solids, most of the oil and grease and gritty materials. The secondary treatment is carried out using microorganisms under aerobic or anaerobic conditions and involves the reduction of BOD, phenol and remaining oil in the water and control of color. The tertiary treatment involves the use of electrodialysis, reverse osmosis and ion exchange to remove the final contaminants in the wastewater. The major disadvantages of using the biological process are that the presence of toxic metals in the effluent prevents efficient growth of microorganisms and the process requires a long retention time. The advanced oxidation processes is gaining attention in the recent days due to the ability to treat almost all the solid components in the textile effluents. The photo oxidation of the effluents is carried out using H2O2, combination of H2O2 and UV and Combination of TiO2 and UV. Advanced oxidation process generates low waste and uses hydroxyl radicals (OHA¢Â—Â) as their main oxidative power. The hydroxyl radicals (OHA¢Â—Â) are produced by chemical, electrical, mechanical or radiation energy and therefore advanced oxidation processes are classified under chemical, photochemical, catalytic, photocatalytic, mechanical and electrical processes. The effluents treated with advanced oxidation process were found to reduce 70-80% COD when compared to 30-45% reduction in biological treatment.

https://www.longdom.org/open-access/production-characterization-and-treatment-of-textile-effluents-a-critical-review-2157-7048.1000182.pdf

Production, Characterization and Treatment of Textile Effluents: A Critical Review

Abundant information exists about sanitation solutions but it is scattered throughout hundreds of books and journals; this Compendium aims to pull it all together in one volume. By ordering and structuring a huge range of information on tried and tested technologies into one concise document, the reader is provided with a useful planning tool for making more informed decisions. Part 1 describes different system configurations for a variety of contexts. Part 2 consists of 52 different Technology Information Sheets, which describe the main advantages, disadvantages , applications and the appropriateness of the technologies required to build a comprehensive sanitation system. Each Technology Information Sheet is complemented by a descriptive illustration. Investing in sanitation and hygiene is not only about saving human lives and dignity; it is the foundation for investing in human development, especially in poor urban and peri-urban areas. However, one of the main bottlenecks encountered the world over, is the limited knowledge and awareness about more appropriate and sustainable systems and technologies that keep project costs affordable and acceptable. Abundant information exists about sanitation technologies but it is scattered throughout dozens of books, reports , proceedings and journals; this Compendium aims to pull the main information together in one volume. Another aim of the Compendium is to promote a systems approach; sanitation devices and technologies should always be considered as parts of an entire system. In 2005, Sandec and the WSSCC published Provisional Guidelines for Household-centred Environmental Sanitation (HCES), a new planning approach for implementing the Bellagio Principles on Sustainable Sanitation in Urban Environmental Sanitation. The HCES approach emphasizes the participation of all stakeholders – beginning at the household/neighbourhood – in planning and implementing sanitation systems. By ordering and structuring a huge range of information on fully and partly tested technologies into one concise document, this Compendium is an important tool for stakehold-ers to make well informed decisions during the planning process. Although this source book is primarily addressed to engineers and planners dealing with infrastructure delivery , the technology sheets also allow non-experts to understand the main advantages and limitations of different technologies and the appropriateness of different system configurations. It is our hope that this Compendium will allow all stakeholders to be involved in selecting improved sanitation technologies and to help promote people-centred solutions to real sanitation problems. This is the first edition of the Compendium and we are looking forward to receiving your feedback – …

https://doc.rero.ch/record/30367/files/03-Compendium_of_Sanitation_Systems_and_Technologies_E_.pdf

Compendium of sanitation systems and technologies

https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Abteilungen/sandec/schwerpunkte/ewm/STUN/Struvite_pdfs/Etter_2011_Low-cost_struvite_production.pdf

Low-cost struvite production using source-separated urine in Nepal

https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Abteilungen/sandec/schwerpunkte/ewm/STUN/Struvite_pdfs/Sakthivel_et_al_2012_accepted_with_SI.pdf

Elizabeth Tilley

Papers

Compendium of sanitation systems and technologies

Low-cost struvite production using source-separated urine in Nepal

Wood ash as a magnesium source for phosphorus recovery from source-separated urine

"This is our next problem": Cleaning up from the COVID-19 response.

Fate of the pathogen indicators phage ΦX174 and Ascaris suum eggs during the production of struvite fertilizer from source-separated urine.