The qEffectiveq Number of Parties: qA Measure with Application to West Europeq Laakso, Markku;Taagepera, Rein Comparative Political Studies; Apr 1, 1979; 12, 1; Proouest pg. 3 “EFFECTIVE” NUMBER OF PARTIES A Measure with Application to West Europe MARKKU LAAKSO University of Helsinki REIN TAAGEPERA University of California, Irvine I s a large number of parties bound to destabilize a political system (Duverger, 1954) or is it not (e.g., Lijphart, 1968; Nilson, 1974)? Before this question can be answered, the number of parties must be operationally deﬁned in a way that takes into account their relative size. Such a number is also needed if one wants to detect trends toward fewer or more numerous parties over time, or the effects of a proposed change in electoral rules. This article presents ways to calculate this important political variable, calculates it for I42 post-1944 elections in 15 West European countries, and analyzes its possible effect on stability. We often talk of two-party and multiparty systems. We further dis- tinguish three~ or four—party systems in some countries, and even talk (e. g., Blondel, 1969: 535) of a two-and-a-half-party system whenthere is a third party of marginal size. Mexico could be viewed as a one-and-a- half-party system because the PR1 is so much larger than all other parties. Rather than take the number of all existing parties, including even the very smallest, one visibly has a need for a number that takes into account their relative size. We will call this number the “effective number of parties,” using the word “effectiveq somewhat in the sense pressure group literature uses it when talking about “effective access” (Truman, 195]: 506), but even more in the operational sense physicists give it when they talk about effective current (Richards et al., 1960: 594), COMPARATIVE POLITICAL STUDIES. Vol. I2 No. I. April 1979 3-27 © I979 Sage Publications. Inc. Copyright (c) 2000 Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company Copyright (c) Sage Inc.

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“Effective” Number of Parties: A Measure with Application to West Europe

Preface Acknowledgements Notation Part I. Overview and Background Topics: 1. Introduction 2. Overview 3. Theoretical background 4. Periodic solids and electron bands 5. Uniform electron gas and simple metals Part II. Density Functional Theory: 6. Density functional theory: foundations 7. The Kohn-Sham ansatz 8. Functionals for exchange and correlation 9. Solving the Kohn-Sham equations Part III. Important Preliminaries on Atoms: 10. Electronic structure of atoms 11. Pseudopotentials Part IV. Determination of Electronic Structure, The Three Basic Methods: 12. Plane waves and grids: basics 13. Plane waves and grids: full calculations 14. Localized orbitals: tight binding 15. Localized orbitals: full calculations 16. Augmented functions: APW, KKR, MTO 17. Augmented functions: linear methods Part V. Predicting Properties of Matter from Electronic Structure - Recent Developments: 18. Quantum molecular dynamics (QMD) 19. Response functions: photons, magnons ... 20. Excitation spectra and optical properties 21. Wannier functions 22. Polarization, localization and Berry's phases 23. Locality and linear scaling O (N) methods 24. Where to find more Appendixes References Index.

Electronic Structure: Basic Theory and Practical Methods

Metabolites, the chemical entities that are transformed during metabolism, provide a functional readout of cellular biochemistry. With emerging technologies in mass spectrometry, thousands of metabolites can now be quantitatively measured from minimal amounts of biological material, which has thereby enabled systems-level analyses. By performing global metabolite profiling, also known as untargeted metabolomics, new discoveries linking cellular pathways to biological mechanism are being revealed and are shaping our understanding of cell biology, physiology and medicine.

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Innovation: Metabolomics: the apogee of the omics trilogy

A table is presented of a complete list of the radioactive and stable isotopes, with a number of their salient features, as recorded in the literature or by private communications up to February 1958. (W.D.M.)

Table of isotopes

We have measured the linear polarization correlation of the photons emitted in an atomic cascade of calcium. It has been shown by a generalization of Bell's inequality that the existence of local hidden variables imposes restrictions on this correlation in conflict with the predictions of quantum mechanics. Our data, in agreement with quantum mechanics, violate these restrictions to high statistical accuracy, thus providing strong evidence against local hidden-variable theories.

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Experimental Test of Local Hidden-Variable Theories.

Experimental nuclear physics

Nuclei and particles

We describe in this paper some further results on artificial radioactivity induced by neutron bombardment, which have been obtained in the physical Laboratory of the University of Rome, after the publication of our first paper on the same subject. Preliminary reports containing the main results have been already published by several of us. By far the most interesting new result concerns the effect of hydrogenated substances on the activation of several elements by neutron bombardment (§1). We give an interpretation of this phenomenon by assuming that neutrons are slowed down by impacts against hydrogen slow nuclei (§2). Some anomalously large absorption cross-sections for slow neutrons are discussed in §3. In many cases the anomalous absorption is connected with the emission of γ-rays (§4). §5 describes some attempts to get information about the energy of the slow neutrons. Scattering experiments on slow neutrons are described in §6, while §7 deals with the production of slow neutrons through the action of non-hydrogenated substances. In §8 the above results are discussed from a theoretical point of view. §§9 and 10 are dedicated to chemical methods for the separation of radioactive isotopes, and to improvements in the technique of the measurements. Results of a systematic investigation of the different elements are given in §11. These results are collected in a table at the end of the paper.

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Artificial Radioactivity Produced by Neutron Bombardment. II

Table of Isotopes, 6th ed.

One of the striking features of Dirac's theory of the electron was the appearance of solutions to his equations which required the existence of an antiparticle, later identified as the positron.

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Emilio Segrè

Papers

Experimental nuclear physics

Nuclei and particles

Artificial Radioactivity Produced by Neutron Bombardment. II

Table of Isotopes, 6th ed.

Observation of antiprotons