We present a comprehensive, up-to-date compilation of band parameters for the technologically important III–V zinc blende and wurtzite compound semiconductors: GaAs, GaSb, GaP, GaN, AlAs, AlSb, AlP, AlN, InAs, InSb, InP, and InN, along with their ternary and quaternary alloys. Based on a review of the existing literature, complete and consistent parameter sets are given for all materials. Emphasizing the quantities required for band structure calculations, we tabulate the direct and indirect energy gaps, spin-orbit, and crystal-field splittings, alloy bowing parameters, effective masses for electrons, heavy, light, and split-off holes, Luttinger parameters, interband momentum matrix elements, and deformation potentials, including temperature and alloy-composition dependences where available. Heterostructure band offsets are also given, on an absolute scale that allows any material to be aligned relative to any other.

Band parameters for III–V compound semiconductors and their alloys

We present a comprehensive and up-to-date compilation of band parameters for all of the nitrogen-containing III–V semiconductors that have been investigated to date. The two main classes are: (1) “conventional” nitrides (wurtzite and zinc-blende GaN, InN, and AlN, along with their alloys) and (2) “dilute” nitrides (zinc-blende ternaries and quaternaries in which a relatively small fraction of N is added to a host III–V material, e.g., GaAsN and GaInAsN). As in our more general review of III–V semiconductor band parameters [I. Vurgaftman et al., J. Appl. Phys. 89, 5815 (2001)], complete and consistent parameter sets are recommended on the basis of a thorough and critical review of the existing literature. We tabulate the direct and indirect energy gaps, spin-orbit and crystal-field splittings, alloy bowing parameters, electron and hole effective masses, deformation potentials, elastic constants, piezoelectric and spontaneous polarization coefficients, as well as heterostructure band offsets. Temperature an...

Band parameters for nitrogen-containing semiconductors

Although silicon has dominated solid-state electronics for more than four decades, a variety of other materials are used in photonic devices to expand the wavelength range of operation and improve performance. For example, gallium-nitride based materials enable light emission at blue and ultraviolet wavelengths1, and high index contrast silicon-on-insulator facilitates ultradense photonic devices2,3. Here, we report the first use of a photodetector based on graphene4,5, a two-dimensional carbon material, in a 10 Gbit s−1 optical data link. In this interdigitated metal–graphene–metal photodetector, an asymmetric metallization scheme is adopted to break the mirror symmetry of the internal electric-field profile in conventional graphene field-effect transistor channels6,7,8,9, allowing for efficient photodetection. A maximum external photoresponsivity of 6.1 mA W−1 is achieved at a wavelength of 1.55 µm. Owing to the unique band structure of graphene10,11 and extensive developments in graphene electronics12,13 and wafer-scale synthesis13, graphene-based integrated electronic–photonic circuits with an operational wavelength range spanning 300 nm to 6 µm (and possibly beyond) can be expected in the future. A graphene-based photodetector with unprecedented photoresponsivity and the ability to perform error-free detection of 10 Gbit s−1s data streams is demonstrated. The results suggest that graphene-based photonic devices have a bright future in telecommunications and other optical applications.

/pdf/graphene-photodetectors-for-high-speed-optical-1xbnta5fns.pdf

Graphene photodetectors for high-speed optical communications

We show a simple, robust, chemical route to the fabrication of ultrahigh-density arrays of nanopores with high aspect ratios using the equilibrium self-assembled morphology of asymmetric diblock copolymers. The dimensions and lateral density of the array are determined by segmental interactions and the copolymer molecular weight. Through direct current electrodeposition, we fabricated vertical arrays of nanowires with densities in excess of 1.9 x 10(11) wires per square centimeter. We found markedly enhanced coercivities with ferromagnetic cobalt nanowires that point toward a route to ultrahigh-density storage media. The copolymer approach described is practical, parallel, compatible with current lithographic processes, and amenable to multilayered device fabrication.

/pdf/ultrahigh-density-nanowire-arrays-grown-in-self-assembled-1mgxshd8uu.pdf

Ultrahigh-Density Nanowire Arrays Grown in Self-Assembled Diblock Copolymer Templates

Status and future outlook of III-V compound semiconductor visible-spectrum light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are presented. Light extraction techniques are reviewed and extraction efficiencies are quantified in the 60%+ (AlGaInP) and ~80% (InGaN) regimes for state-of-the-art devices. The phosphor-based white LED concept is reviewed and recent performance discussed, showing that high-power white LEDs now approach the 100-lm/W regime. Devices employing multiple phosphors for "warm" white color temperatures (~3000-4000 K) and high color rendering (CRI>80), which provide properties critical for many illumination applications, are discussed. Recent developments in chip design, packaging, and high current performance lead to very high luminance devices (~50 Mcd/m2 white at 1 A forward current in 1times1 mm2 chip) that are suitable for application to automotive forward lighting. A prognosis for future LED performance levels is considered given further improvements in internal quantum efficiency, which to date lag achievements in light extraction efficiency for InGaN LEDs

/pdf/status-and-future-of-high-power-light-emitting-diodes-for-3dktlyhlq0.pdf

Status and Future of High-Power Light-Emitting Diodes for Solid-State Lighting

Physics of gallium nitrides and related compounds GaN growth p-Type GaN obtained by electron beam irradiation n-Type GaN p-Type GaN InGaN Zn and Si co-doped InGaN/AlGaN double-heterostructure blue and blue-green LEDs inGaN single-quantum-well structure LEDs room-temperature pulsed operation of laser diodes emission mechanisms of LEDs and LDs room temperature CW operation of InGaN MQW LDs latest results - lasers with self-organized InGaN quantum dots

https://www.springer.com/productFlyer_978-3-540-66505-2.pdf?SGWID=0-0-1297-1628844-0

The Blue Laser Diode: GaN based Light Emitters and Lasers

The story of Shuji Nakamura and the blue laser diode is remarkable. It is clear from this book that he enjoys this fact and wishes his readers to become familiar with his success. Nakamura was a little known researcher at a small but successful Japanese company, Nichia Chemical, on Shikoku, one of Japan's four main islands. One of their successful lines was phosphors for fluorescent lights. In 1989, Nakamura was given a few million dollars by the company's Chairman Nobuo Ogawa. Nakamura chose to research into blue light emitters using gallium nitride, a material that had been studied by Pankove at RCA some 20 years earlier and largely written off by the conventional semiconductor industry. In spite of many factors against progress, this second edition of The Blue Laser Diode testifies to the success of this gamble. The book is subtitled `The complete story'. This is an unlikely epithet for the book because there is still a long way to go. The book is written with a mixture of academic integrity and commercial trumpet blowing. There is too often a lack of detail and logical order. There is inadequate discussion of the case for and against other materials such as ZnSe. One feels that the commercial pressure not to give away all the answers about gallium nitride has triumphed over the wish for scientific disclosure to enable results to be repeated. The book clearly reports the two most significant difficulties faced by gallium nitride. First, it appeared from Pankove's work that it would not to be easy to find an appropriate p-type dopant that could make suitable p-n junctions. Two chapters consider this problem, starting with low energy electron beam irradiation and then in the second chapter considering thermal annealing in nitrogen. The writing and detail suggest that it is still a technology rather than science (or, perhaps more unkindly, cook-book recipes of time and temperature). The second important difficulty is that gallium nitride has too many dislocations for long-life laser action. Growth on sapphire with appropriate buffer layers is described as an initial step in reducing the dislocations. Later in the book, it is recognized that InxGa1-xN offers greater versatility, and this is considered in more detail along with InGaN/AlGaN double heterostructures. Regrettably it is not easy though to dig out from this book all the details of lattice matching that are required and how successful lattice matching has been in removing dislocations and increasing lifetime. Clearly the general trend of longer lifetimes means that there has been useful success. Blue laser diodes are now claimed to be commercially available with lifetimes measured in thousands of hours while blue light emitting diodes, with their lower current densities, are said to have lifetimes measurable in years. The book has a little for everyone. Applications are noted briefly as well as blow-by-blow accounts of the manufacturing technology of double heterostructure, multi-quantum well lasers and progress to room temperature operation. Applications range from the mundane traffic light, through full colour displays to 15-20 Gbyte optically read data storage discs. Interestingly it is the mundane applications that may have the biggest financial impact. A statistic that appears on the Internet is that if all the traffic signals in Japan could be switched to suitable LEDs then one could save the construction of at least one nuclear power plant. Although Nakamura is an admirer of Pankove's work, the writing and scientific style does not match that of Pankove. Nevertheless the book records a thorough solid achievement and as such there should be a similar solid basis for many readers in materials science and laser technology wishing to read this book. The book regrettably gives no indication why Nakamura has left Nichia for a Professorship at Santa Barbara after such magnificent early support by Nichia. Nor does the book explain why Nakamura's co-author Gerhard Fasol is undercutting the joint venture by selling for $15 over the web a 28 page summary about blue laser diodes using gallium nitride. However, if price is no consideration, there is also advertised on the web a 222 page report SC-23 from Strategies Unlimited entitled `Gallium Nitride 2000 - Technology Status, Applications, and Market Forecast' for a modest $3950. Clearly the present book cannot be `the complete story'. That will run for quite a time yet. John Carroll

The Blue Laser Diode: The Complete Story

Zinc-blende-type semiconductors differ from their diamondlike counterparts by the absence of inversion symmetry. This produces a number of spin splittings and spin-orbit coupling effects which are absent in the latter. For instance, all states at a general k are split by spin-orbit interaction. Also, bonding and antibonding p-like states are coupled by the same interaction. Many of these effects are calculated here on the basis of the ab initio self-consistent fully relativistic linear-muffin-tin-orbital method. For a better understanding and interpretation of the results, semiempirical parametrized 16\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}16 k\ensuremath{\cdot}p calculations of several types are performed. Particular emphasis is placed on determining the signs of these splittings in an unambiguous manner. The results are compared with available experimental data of rather diverse origin.

Relativistic band structure and spin-orbit splitting of zinc-blende-type semiconductors

In December 1995, a researcher at a medium-sized company in Japan announced the development of a long-sought device—a laser diode operating at room temperature that emits blue light. In his Perspective, Fasol describes the development of this device, which may have major applications in optical data storage and computer displays, and the corporate culture that fostered its creation.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/272/5269/1751.full.pdf

Room-Temperature Blue Gallium Nitride Laser Diode

Future developments in circuit design and magnetic data storage will demand smaller and smaller structures. In his Research Commentary, Fasol reviews recent methods for fabricating metallic and magnetic nanowires. In some cases, the precision of existing technology can be applied to creating tiny wires with useful properties.

Gerhard Fasol

Papers

The Blue Laser Diode: GaN based Light Emitters and Lasers

The Blue Laser Diode: The Complete Story

Relativistic band structure and spin-orbit splitting of zinc-blende-type semiconductors

Room-Temperature Blue Gallium Nitride Laser Diode

Nanowires: Small Is Beautiful