a b s t r a c t Schistosomiasis, a neglected tropical disease of poverty ranks second among the most widespread parasitic disease in various nations in sub-Saharan Africa. Neglected tropical diseases are causes of about 534,000 deaths annually in sub-Saharan Africa and an estimated 57 million disability-adjusted life-years are lost annually due to the neglected tropical diseases. The neglected tropical diseases exert great health, social and financial burden on economies of households and governments. Schistosomiasis has profound negative effects on child development, outcome of pregnancy, and agricultural productivity, thus a key reason why the “bottom 500 million” inhabitants of sub-Saharan Africa continue to live in poverty. In 2008, 17.5 million people were treated globally for schistosomiasis, 11.7 million of those treated were from sub-Saharan Africa. This enervating disease has been successfully eradicated in Japan, as well as in Tunisia. Morocco and some Caribbean Island countries have made significant progress on control and management of this disease. Brazil, China and Egypt are taking steps towards elimination of the disease, while most sub-Saharan countries are still groaning under the burden of the disease. Various factors are responsible for the continuous and persistent transmission of schistosomiasis in sub-Saharan Africa. These include climatic changes and global warming, proximity to water bodies, irrigation and dam construction as well as socio-economic factors such as occupational activities and poverty. The morbidity and mortality caused by this disease cannot be overemphasized. This review is an exposition of human schistosomiasis as it affects the inhabitants of various communities in sub-Sahara African countries. It is hoped this will bring a re-awakening towards efforts to combat this impoverishing disease in terms of vaccines development, alternative drug design, as well as new point-of-care diagnostics.

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Impact of human schistosomiasis in sub-Saharan Africa

Schistosomiasis in African infants and preschool children: let them now be treated!

An introduction to animal husbandry in the tropics

A robust dry reagent lateral flow assay for diagnosis of active schistosomiasis by detection of Schistosoma circulating anodic antigen.

Background 
The Kato-Katz technique is widely used for the diagnosis of Schistosoma mansoni, but shows low sensitivity in light-intensity infections. We assessed the accuracy of a commercially available point-of-care circulating cathodic antigen (POC-CCA) cassette test for the diagnosis of S. mansoni in preschool-aged children before and after praziquantel administration.


Methodology 
A 3-week longitudinal survey with a treatment intervention was conducted in Azaguie, south Cote d'Ivoire. Overall, 242 preschoolers (age range: 2 months to 5.5 years) submitted two stool and two urine samples before praziquantel administration, and 86 individuals were followed-up posttreatment. Stool samples were examined with duplicate Kato-Katz thick smears for S. mansoni. Urine samples were subjected to POC-CCA cassette test for S. mansoni, and a filtration method for S. haematobium diagnosis.


Principal Findings 
Before treatment, the prevalence of S. mansoni, as determined by quadruplicate Kato-Katz, single CCA considering ‘trace’ as negative (t−), and single CCA with ‘trace’ as positive (t+), was 23.1%, 34.3% and 64.5%, respectively. Using the combined results (i.e., four Kato-Katz and duplicate CCA(t−)) as diagnostic ‘gold’ standard, the sensitivity of a single Kato-Katz, a single CCA(t−) or CCA(t+) was 28.3%, 69.7% and 89.1%, respectively. Three weeks posttreatment, the sensitivity of a single Kato-Katz, single CCA(t−) and CCA(t+) was 4.0%, 80.0% and 84.0%, respectively. The intensity of the POC-CCA test band reaction was correlated with S. mansoni egg burden (odds ratio = 1.2, p = 0.04).


Conclusions/Significance 
A single POC-CCA cassette test appears to be more sensitive than multiple Kato-Katz thick smears for the diagnosis of S. mansoni in preschool-aged children before and after praziquantel administration. The POC-CCA cassette test can be recommended for the rapid identification of S. mansoni infections before treatment. Additional studies are warranted to determine the usefulness of POC-CCA for assessing drug efficacy and monitoring the impact of control interventions.

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Accuracy of Urine Circulating Cathodic Antigen Test for the Diagnosis of Schistosoma mansoni in Preschool-Aged Children before and after Treatment

Until recently, the epidemiology and control of schistosomiasis in sub-Saharan Africa have focused primarily on infections in school-aged children and to a lesser extent on adults. Now there is growing evidence and reports of infection in infants and pre-school-aged children (⩽6 years old) in Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Niger, Nigeria and Uganda, with reported prevalence from 14% to 86%. In this review, we provide available information on the epidemiology, transmission and control of schistosomiasis in this age group, generally not considered or included in national schistosomiasis control programmes that are being implemented in several sub-Saharan African countries. Contrary to previous assumptions, we show that schistosomiasis infection starts from early childhood in many endemic communities and factors associated with exposure of infants and pre-school-aged children to infection are yet to be determined. The development of morbidity early in childhood may contribute to long-term clinical impact and severity of schistosomiasis before they receive treatment. Consistently, these issues are overlooked in most schistosomiasis control programmes. It is, therefore, necessary to review current policy of schistosomiasis control programmes in sub-Saharan Africa to consider the treatment of infant and pre-school-aged children and the health education to mothers.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0031182012000029

Schistosomiasis in infants and pre-school-aged children in sub-Saharan Africa: implication for control

The study was aimed at ascertaining the seroprevalence and some risk factors of toxoplasmosis among those attending the National Hospital, Abuja, Nigeria Using the ImmunoComb  Toxo IgG Kit for the detection of IgG antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in human serum/ plasma, 216 persons were examined for toxoplasmosis This comprised of equal number (72 persons each) of persons from three subgroups, namely, gravid women, immuno-compromised persons consisting of patients with HIV and hepatitis, and the immuno-competent persons who are the controls The overall seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis was 315% Seroprevalence was significantly higher among pregnant women than among both the immuno-compromised and the immuno-competent persons (?2-test; p 005) Seroprevalence increased with age among gravid women, as well as among the immuno-compromised subgroups but not among the controls Overall, seroprevalence among those living with cats/dogs (4561%) was significantly higher than that of those living without cats/dogs (1569%) (?2-test; p < 005); while the risk of infection with toxoplasmosis was four times higher than among those not living with cats (Odds Ratio 451) This was the same among the immune-compromised as well as the immune-competent where the risks of getting infected were five times higher among those cohabiting with cats (Odd Ratio 545 and Odds Ratio 536 respectively) Among the pregnant women, the risk of getting infected with toxoplasmosis was three times higher among those cohabiting with cats (Odds Ratio 300) Seroprevalence was independent of the tribal origin (?2-test; p < 005 for all the tests) Keywords: Toxoplasmosis, Toxoplasma gondii, serprevalence, pregnant women, immuno-compromised, immuno-competent, Nigeria

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Comparative Seroprevalence and Risk Factors of Toxoplasmosis among Three Subgroups in Nigeria

Anti-spermatogenic Effects of Ethanol Extract of Mucuna Urens

The effect of Irvingia gabonensis seeds, on the liver and gonads of male albino rats, was investigated.  This investigation was prompted by the increasing international acceptance of the seeds of the African bush mango as being an effective weight reducing herbal medication. Thirty-two (32) male albino rats, were divided into eight groups (A1,A2, B1,B2, C1, C2, D1 and D2), with four rats in each group in a completely randomized design. The treatment regime for the groups were 0mg/kg BW (control) –A1 and A2, 50mg/kg BW – B1 and B2, 100mg/kg BW –C1 and C2 and 150mg/kg BW – D1 and D2 of the test substance respectively. The extract was administered by oral intubation for fourteen (14) days, after which the organs, to be investigated were collected for further histological processing. Photomicrographs of collected organs showed mild to severe degenerative effects on the histology of the organs investigated. The seed extract of Irvingia gabonensis had a dose-dependent effect on the organs. Some of the histopathological effects observed in the liver were, sinusoidal dilations (SD), hemorrhaging of the central vein (HCV), inflammation (I) and abnormal distribution of hepatocyte (ADH). Others were, macrosteatosis(M) and  macrovesicular fatty infilterations (MFI). In the testes, arrested spermatogenesis (AS), degenerated germinal epithelium (DGE), absent interstitial cells (AIC), hardened basal cells (HBC) and empty seminiferous tubules(EST) were some of the effects of the seed extract observed.  This indicates that seed extracts of Irvingia gabonensis could cause degeneration of both liver and testes in the male mammal at high concentrations. Keywords : Irvingia gabonensis seeds, histopathological effects, liver, gonads, and African bush mango

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Effect of Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O’Rorke) Seeds on the Liver and Gonads of Male Albino Rats

The results revealed that ethanol extract of the whole plant of Phyllanthus amarusreduced the litter size and weight of albino rats at birth, especially at high doses. Doses administered intraperitoneally were 100, 150 and 200 mg/kg bw. Treatments significantly (P< 0.05) affected the litter size and litter weight at birth.

	 

	Key words: Phyllanthus amarus, litter size, litter weight, albino rat.

https://www.academicjournals.org/article/article1380365999_Etta pdf.pdf

Hannah Edim Etta

Papers

Schistosomiasis in infants and pre-school-aged children in sub-Saharan Africa: implication for control

Comparative Seroprevalence and Risk Factors of Toxoplasmosis among Three Subgroups in Nigeria

Anti-spermatogenic Effects of Ethanol Extract of Mucuna Urens

Effect of Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O’Rorke) Seeds on the Liver and Gonads of Male Albino Rats

Effects of Phyllanthus amarus on litter traits in albino rats