The Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA), an instrument on the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft, has measured the topography, surface roughness, and 1.064-μm reflectivity of Mars and the heights of volatile and dust clouds. This paper discusses the function of the MOLA instrument and the acquisition, processing, and correction of observations to produce global data sets. The altimeter measurements have been converted to both gridded and spherical harmonic models for the topography and shape of Mars that have vertical and radial accuracies of ~1 m with respect to the planet's center of mass. The current global topographic grid has a resolution of 1/64° in latitude × 1/32° in longitude (1 × 2 km^2 at the equator). Reconstruction of the locations of incident laser pulses on the Martian surface appears to be at the 100-m spatial accuracy level and results in 2 orders of magnitude improvement in the global geodetic grid of Mars. Global maps of optical pulse width indicative of 100-m-scale surface roughness and 1.064-μm reflectivity with an accuracy of 5% have also been obtained.

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Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter: Experiment summary after the first year of global mapping of Mars

▪ Abstract We know that giant planets played a crucial role in the making of our Solar System. The discovery of giant planets orbiting other stars is a formidable opportunity to learn more about these objects, what their composition is, how various processes influence their structure and evolution, and most importantly how they form. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune can be studied in detail, mostly from close spacecraft flybys. We can infer that they are all enriched in heavy elements compared to the Sun, with the relative global enrichments increasing with distance to the Sun. We can also infer that they possess dense cores of varied masses. The intercomparison of presently characterized extrasolar giant planets shows that they are also mainly made of hydrogen and helium, but that they either have significantly different amounts of heavy elements, have had different orbital evolutions, or both. Hence, many questions remain and need to be answered to make significant progress on the origins of planets...

THE INTERIORS OF GIANT PLANETS: Models and Outstanding Questions

Every three years the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements revises tables giving the directions of the poles of rotation and the prime meridians of the planets, satellites, minor planets, and comets. This report takes into account the IAU Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN) and the IAU Committee on Small Body Nomenclature (CSBN) definition of dwarf planets, introduces improved values for the pole and rotation rate of Mercury, returns the rotation rate of Jupiter to a previous value, introduces improved values for the rotation of five satellites of Saturn, and adds the equatorial radius of the Sun for comparison. It also adds or updates size and shape information for the Earth, Mars’ satellites Deimos and Phobos, the four Galilean satellites of Jupiter, and 22 satellites of Saturn. Pole, rotation, and size information has been added for the asteroids (21) Lutetia, (511) Davida, and (2867) Steins. Pole and rotation information has been added for (2) Pallas and (21) Lutetia. Pole and rotation and mean radius information has been added for (1) Ceres. Pole information has been updated for (4) Vesta. The high precision realization for the pole and rotation rate of the Moon is updated. Alternative orientation models for Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are noted. The Working Group also reaffirms that once an observable feature at a defined longitude is chosen, a longitude definition origin should not change except under unusual circumstances. It is also noted that alternative coordinate systems may exist for various (e.g. dynamical) purposes, but specific cartographic coordinate system information continues to be recommended for each body. The Working Group elaborates on its purpose, and also announces its plans to occasionally provide limited updates to its recommendations via its website, in order to address community needs for some updates more often than every 3 years. Brief recommendations are also made to the general planetary community regarding the need for controlled products, and improved or consensus rotation models for Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

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Report of the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements: 2009

The atmosphere of Titan: An analysis of the Voyager 1 radio occultation measurements

The Atmosphere of Titan: An Analysis of the Voyager 1 Radio Occultation Measurements.

Every three years the IAU/IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements of the planets and satellites revises tables giving the directions of the north poles of rotation and the prime meridians of the planets, satellites, and asteroids. Also presented are revised tables giving their sizes and shapes. Changes since the previous report are summarized in the Appendix.

Report of the IAU/IAG/COSPAR working group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements of the planets and satellites: 1991

Icarus radar and optical observations analyzed to verify general relativity predictions using Schwarzschild metrics and to estimate solar oblateness, Mercury mass, etc

Icarus and the Determination of Astronomical Constants

The first extensive photometric observations of the mutual eclipses and occultations of the Galilean satellites date back to Jupiter's 1973 apparition.

Astrometry from Mutual Phenomena of the Galilean Satellites in 1990-1992

Mass of the earth-moon system from observations of Eros, 1893-1966.

A method for improving Sampson's (1910, 1912, 1921) original work in developing series expressions for accurate coordinates of the Galilean satellites is discussed. The method, which utilizes computer-based algebraic manipulation software, was developed to reconstruct Sampson's theory, remove existing errors, introduce neglected effects, and provide analytic expressions for the coordinates as well as for the partial derivatives with respect to orbital parameters, Jupiter's mass and oblateness, the satellite masses, and Jupiter's pole and rotation period. The software system, capable of handling Poisson series with up to 73 polynomial variables and 28 trigonometric arguments, is described. The preliminary solution is presented, and procedures are outlined for calculating perturbations and eliminating auxiliary parameters.

Jay H. Lieske

Papers

Report of the IAU/IAG/COSPAR working group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements of the planets and satellites: 1991

Icarus and the Determination of Astronomical Constants

Astrometry from Mutual Phenomena of the Galilean Satellites in 1990-1992

Mass of the earth-moon system from observations of Eros, 1893-1966.

Computer-developed construction of analytic expressions for the coordinates and partial derivatives of Jupiter's Galilean satellites