2 1 The innovative transport systems and the CityMobil project 10 1.1 The research questions 10 2 The state of art in the field of automatic transport systems 12 2.1 Case studies and demand studies for innovative transport systems 12 3 The design and implementation of surveys 14 3.1 Definition of experimental design 14 3.2 Questionnaire design and delivery 16 3.3 First analyses on the collected sample 18 4 Calibration of Logit Multionomial demand models 21 4.1 Methodology 21 4.2 Calibration of the “full” model. 22 4.3 Calibration of the “final” model 24 4.4 The demand analysis through the final Multinomial Logit model 25 5 The analysis of interaction between the demand and socioeconomic attributes 31 5.1 Methodology 31 5.2 Application of Mixed Logit models to the demand 31 5.3 Analysis of the interactions between demand and socioeconomic attributes through Mixed Logit models 32 5.4 Mixed Logit model and interaction between age and the demand for the CTS 38 5.5 Demand analysis with Mixed Logit model 39 6 Final analyses and conclusions 45 6.1 Comparison between the results of the analyses 45 6.2 Conclusions 48 6.3 Answers to the research questions and future developments 52

The European commission

https://cyberleninka.org/article/n/1481718.pdf

Fuel consumption and CO2 emissions from passenger cars in Europe – Laboratory versus real-world emissions

It is hard to overstate the importance of oxygenated organic
compounds in atmospheric chemistry. Oxygenated organic
compounds are emitted into the atmosphere from natural and
man-made sources, and they are formed in the atmosphere as
oxidation products of all hydrocarbons present in the
atmosphere. Oxygenated volatile organic compounds
(OVOCs) are generally more reactive than the alkanes from
which they are derived. OVOCs play an active role in the
sequence of chemical reactions responsible for tropospheric
ozone formation in both polluted and remote environments.

/pdf/atmospheric-chemistry-of-oxygenated-volatile-organic-4n99bvkxzu.pdf

Atmospheric chemistry of oxygenated volatile organic compounds: impacts on air quality and climate.

Poor air quality is globally the largest environmental health risk. Epidemiological studies have uncovered clear relationships of gaseous pollutants and particulate matter (PM) with adverse health outcomes, including mortality by cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Studies of health impacts by aerosols are highly multidisciplinary with a broad range of scales in space and time. We assess recent advances and future challenges regarding aerosol effects on health from molecular to global scales through epidemiological studies, field measurements, health-related properties of PM, and multiphase interactions of oxidants and PM upon respiratory deposition. Global modeling combined with epidemiological exposure-response functions indicates that ambient air pollution causes more than four million premature deaths per year. Epidemiological studies usually refer to PM mass concentrations, but some health effects may relate to specific constituents such as bioaerosols, polycyclic aromatic compounds, and transition metals. Various analytical techniques and cellular and molecular assays are applied to assess the redox activity of PM and the formation of reactive oxygen species. Multiphase chemical interactions of lung antioxidants with atmospheric pollutants are crucial to the mechanistic and molecular understanding of oxidative stress upon respiratory deposition. The role of distinct PM components in health impacts and mortality needs to be clarified by integrated research on various spatiotemporal scales for better evaluation and mitigation of aerosol effects on public health in the Anthropocene.

Aerosol Health Effects from Molecular to Global Scales

Europe's regulation of passenger car emissions has been proven to have failed when it comes to nitrogen oxide emissions (NOx) by diesel engines. Due to historical decisions favouring diesel technology, Europe has become a diesel island with no equal worldwide. As a result, virtually every European citizen breathes in air which is deemed harmful to human health. Real driving emissions (RDE) testing by means of portable emissions measurement systems (PEMS) can potentially eliminate the discrepancy between lab and road tests, and will complement the dynamometer type-approval procedure from September 2017 onwards. Despite the significant potential of PEMS testing, the emission assessment has been watered down through politics to provide the automotive manufacturers with additional lead-time. In this way, the lab to road gap is not eliminated but only decreased. This means that diesel cars will continue to over-emit NOx until the 2020s at earliest. This has consequences for effectively bringing down local air quality issues, especially in low emission zones (LEZ). This paper presents a review of the European emission regulation history up to date and makes a comparison with the approach in the other important car markets globally. One can conclude that a substantial update of the European regulatory framework concerning automotive emissions is required, while ambitious post-2021 targets should be set if Europe does not want its automotive industry to lose its competitive position in the global market. In addition, an equilibrium should be sought for between sustainable personal transport in the form of zero-emission vehicles (ZEV), and a sustainable economic climate for the automotive industry. The former is needed if LEZs are to effectively bring down pollutant levels in cities.

A review of the European passenger car regulations – Real driving emissions vs local air quality

This paper presents the World-wide harmonized Light duty Test Cycle (WLTC), developed under the Working Party on Pollution and Energy (GRPE) and sponsored by the European Union (with Switzerland) and Japan. India, Korea and USA have also actively contributed. The objective was to design the harmonized driving cycle from “real world” driving data in different regions around the world, combined with suitable weighting factors. To this aim, driving data and traffic statistics of light duty vehicles use were collected and analyzed as basic elements to develop the harmonized cycle. The regional driving data and weighting factors were then combined in order to develop a unified database representing the worldwide light duty vehicle driving behavior. From the unified database, short trips were selected and combined to develop a driving cycle as representative as possible of the unified database. Approximately 765,000 km of data were collected, covering a wide range of vehicle categories, road types and driving conditions. The resulting WLTC is an ensemble of three driving cycles adapted to three vehicle categories with different power-to-mass ratio (PMR). It has been designed as a harmonized cycle for the certification of light duty vehicles around the world and, together with the new harmonized test procedures (WLTP), will serve to check the compliance of vehicle pollutant emissions with respect to the applicable emissions limits and to establish the reference vehicle fuel consumption and CO2 performance.

Development of the World-wide harmonized Light duty Test Cycle (WLTC) and a possible pathway for its introduction in the European legislation

https://cyberleninka.org/article/n/618304.pdf

CO2 emissions and energy demands of vehicles tested under the NEDC and the new WLTP type approval test procedures

The Worldwide Harmonized Light Duty Test Procedure (WLTP), recently issued as GTR15 by UNECE-WP29, is designed to check the pollutant emission compliance of Light Duty Vehicles (LDVs) around the wo...

/pdf/gaseous-emissions-from-light-duty-vehicles-moving-from-nedc-1wbvpsa6bn.pdf

Gaseous Emissions from Light-Duty Vehicles: Moving from NEDC to the New WLTP Test Procedure

After significant efforts from many parties, the World-wide harmonized Light duty Test Procedure (WLTP) has seen its light first as the UNECE Global Technical Regulation and then as the procedure adopted in the type-approval of light-duty vehicles in Europe. The paper focuses its attention on the main procedural differences between the WLTP and the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC), which is the test-procedure currently used in Europe. In general terms the WLTP appears to be a significant improvement compared to the NEDC. The main differences between two test procedures are identified and their impact on CO2 emissions quantified using the in-house built simulation software CO2MPAS. On the basis of each of these differences, the paper assesses the potential total impact on the final reported type-approval CO2 emissions. The biggest impact on CO2 emissions is coming from the changes in the road load determination procedure (∼10% increase). Procedural changes concerning the test in the laboratory will bring another 8% and post-processing and declaration of results will result in difference of approximately 5% (each). Overall, the WLTP is likely to increase the type-approval CO2 emissions by approximately 25%. Therefore, the WLTP will be able to reduce more than half of the gap identified between the type-approval and real-life figures in Europe. This should be seen as a considerable improvement given the ontological limitations of a laboratory-based test procedure.

How much difference in type-approval CO2 emissions from passenger cars in Europe can be expected from changing to the new test procedure (NEDC vs. WLTP)?

Jelica Pavlovic

Papers

Development of the World-wide harmonized Light duty Test Cycle (WLTC) and a possible pathway for its introduction in the European legislation

CO2 emissions and energy demands of vehicles tested under the NEDC and the new WLTP type approval test procedures

Gaseous Emissions from Light-Duty Vehicles: Moving from NEDC to the New WLTP Test Procedure

How much difference in type-approval CO2 emissions from passenger cars in Europe can be expected from changing to the new test procedure (NEDC vs. WLTP)?

On-road emissions of passenger cars beyond the boundary conditions of the real-driving emissions test.