General Aspects.- Systematics.- Biology of Mosquitoes.- Medical Importance of Mosquitoes.- Mosquito Research Techniques.- Morphology of Mosquitoes.- Identification Keys Morphology Ecology and Distribution of European Species.- Key to Female Mosquitoes.- Key to Male Mosquitoes.- Key to Mosquito Fourth Instar Larvae.- Subfamily Anophelinae.- Subfamily Culicinae.- Identification Keys, Morphology, Ecology and Distribution of Important Vector and Nuisance Species - Worldwide.- Africa.- Asia.- Australia.- Central and South America.- North America.- Control of Mosquitoes.- Biological Control.- Environmental Management of Mosquitoes.- Chemical Control.- Physical Control.- Genetic Control of Mosquitoes.- Personal Protection.- Implementation and Integration of Mosquito Control Measures.

Mosquitoes and their Control

Ecosystem services are the benefits obtained from the environment that increase human well-being. Economic valuation is conducted by measuring the human welfare gains or losses that result from changes in the provision of ecosystem services. Bats have long been postulated to play important roles in arthropod suppression, seed dispersal, and pollination; however, only recently have these ecosystem services begun to be thoroughly evaluated. Here, we review the available literature on the ecological and economic impact of ecosystem services provided by bats. We describe dietary preferences, foraging behaviors, adaptations, and phylogenetic histories of insectivorous, frugivorous, and nectarivorous bats worldwide in the context of their respective ecosystem services. For each trophic ensemble, we discuss the consequences of these ecological interactions on both natural and agricultural systems. Throughout this review, we highlight the research needed to fully determine the ecosystem services in question. Finally, we provide a comprehensive overview of economic valuation of ecosystem services. Unfortunately, few studies estimating the economic value of ecosystem services provided by bats have been conducted to date; however, we outline a framework that could be used in future studies to more fully address this question. Consumptive goods provided by bats, such as food and guano, are often exchanged in markets where the market price indicates an economic value. Nonmarket valuation methods can be used to estimate the economic value of nonconsumptive services, including inputs to agricultural production and recreational activities. Information on the ecological and economic value of ecosystem services provided by bats can be used to inform decisions regarding where and when to protect or restore bat populations and associated habitats, as well as to improve public perception of bats.

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Ecosystem services provided by bats

The ecological impacts of nighttime light pollution have been a longstanding source of concern, accentuated by realized and projected growth in electrical lighting. As human communities and lighting technologies develop, artificial light increasingly modifies natural light regimes by encroaching on dark refuges in space, in time, and across wavelengths. A wide variety of ecological implications of artificial light have been identified. However, the primary research to date is largely focused on the disruptive influence of nighttime light on higher vertebrates, and while comprehensive reviews have been compiled along taxonomic lines and within specific research domains, the subject is in need of synthesis within a common mechanistic framework. Here we propose such a framework that focuses on the cross-factoring of the ways in which artificial lighting alters natural light regimes (spatially, temporally, and spectrally), and the ways in which light influences biological systems, particularly the distinction between light as a resource and light as an information source. We review the evidence for each of the combinations of this cross-factoring. As artificial lighting alters natural patterns of light in space, time and across wavelengths, natural patterns of resource use and information flows may be disrupted, with downstream effects to the structure and function of ecosystems. This review highlights: (i) the potential influence of nighttime lighting at all levels of biological organisation (from cell to ecosystem); (ii) the significant impact that even low levels of nighttime light pollution can have; and (iii) the existence of major research gaps, particularly in terms of the impacts of light at population and ecosystem levels, identification of intensity thresholds, and the spatial extent of impacts in the vicinity of artificial lights.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/brv.12036

The ecological impacts of nighttime light pollution: a mechanistic appraisal

Organisms must adapt to the temporal characteristics of their surroundings to successfully survive and reproduce. Variation in the daily light cycle, for example, acts through endocrine and neurobiological mechanisms to control several downstream physiological and behavioral processes. Interruptions in normal circadian light cycles and the resulting disruption of normal melatonin rhythms cause widespread disruptive effects involving multiple body systems, the results of which can have serious medical consequences for individuals, as well as large-scale ecological implications for populations. With the invention of electrical lights about a century ago, the temporal organization of the environment has been drastically altered for many species, including humans. In addition to the incidental exposure to light at night through light pollution, humans also engage in increasing amounts of shift-work, resulting in repeated and often long-term circadian disruption. The increasing prevalence of exposure to light at night has significant social, ecological, behavioral, and health consequences that are only now becoming apparent. This review addresses the complicated web of potential behavioral and physiological consequences resulting from exposure to light at night, as well as the large-scale medical and ecological implications that may result.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1600-079X.2007.00473.x

The dark side of light at night: physiological, epidemiological, and ecological consequences

White-nose syndrome (WNS) and the increased development of wind-power facilities are threatening populations of insectivorous bats in North America. Bats are voracious predators of nocturnal insects, including many crop and forest pests. We present here analyses suggesting that loss of bats in North America could lead to agricultural losses estimated at more than $3.7 billion/year. Urgent efforts are needed to educate the public and policy-makers about the ecological and economic importance of insectivorous bats and to provide practical conservation solutions.

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Economic Importance of Bats in Agriculture

The flight activity of three species of insectivorous bats and their prey was studied in north-east Scotland (57°N) during summer 1993. Aerial insects of sizes taken by bats were more abundant during the day than during the night, but the highest abundance usually occurred around dusk, partly reflecting increased flight of dipterans. In contrast, the flight activity of moths, mainly Geometridae and Pyralidae, was greatest around midnight. Two species of aerial-hawking bats, Pipistrellus pipistrellus and Myotis daubentonii, which feed primarily on small flying insects, mainly Diptera, emerged from their roosts 15-30 min after sunset, during or after the dusk peak in insect activity, and subsequently foraged as their food was declining in abundance. In contrast, the foliage gleaning bat Plecotus auritus, which feeds primarily on moths, did not emerge until about one hour after sunset, but while the activity of its main prey was increasing. The two aerial-hawking bats therefore seem to be constrained from exploiting most of the evening peak in aerial insect abundance, presumably because earlier emergence would result in higher predation risk at the higher light levels. P. auritus may have less to gain by emerging early, since it can feed on moths and non-flying prey independently of the activity of small insects at dusk. The conclusions have implications for the conservation of bats and their habitats particularly at high latitudes. Protective tree cover may allow earlier evening emergence of bats and therefore provide access to more food.

Timing of foraging flights of three species of bats in relation to insect activity and predation risk

We reviewed published and unpublished written reports on bat mortality at wind farms in northwestern Europe. The estimated number of bats killed per turbine annually was relatively low (0–3) on flat, open farmland away from the coast, higher (2–5) in more complex agricultural landscapes, and highest (5–20) at the coast and on forested hills and ridges. The species killed almost exclusively (98%) belonged to a group (Nyctalus, Pipistrellus, Vespertilio and Eptesicus spp.) adapted for open-air foraging. The bats were killed by the moving rotor blades as they hunted insects attracted to the turbines. This occurred independently of sex and age. Peak mortality varied considerably in frequency and timing among years, but the events usually (90%) occurred on nights with low wind speeds in late July to early October and to a lesser extent (10%) also in April-June. The mortality increased with turbine tower height and rotor diameter but was independent of the distance from the ground to the lowest rotor point. It was also independent of the size of the wind park (1–18 turbines). Bat species other than the open-air suite referred to above are usually not at risk at wind turbines, because they fly below the rotors, but are still killed occasionally (2%).

/pdf/bat-mortality-at-wind-turbines-in-northwestern-europe-335geju21t.pdf

Bat Mortality at Wind Turbines in Northwestern Europe

Wind energy continues to be one of the fastest growing renewable energy sources under development, and while representing a clean energy source, it is not environmentally neutral. Large numbers of bats are being killed at utility-scale wind energy facilities worldwide, raising concern about cumulative impacts of wind energy development on bat populations. We discuss our current state of knowledge on patterns of bat fatalities at wind facilities, estimates of fatalities, mitigation efforts, and policy and conservation implications. Given the magnitude and extent of fatalities of bats worldwide, the conservation implications of understanding and mitigating bat fatalities at wind energy facilities are critically important and should be proactive and based on science rather than being reactive and arbitrary.

/pdf/impacts-of-wind-energy-development-on-bats-a-global-4i1rrvadof.pdf

Impacts of wind energy development on bats : A global perspective

Female northern bats emerged at dusk to feed when aerial insect density was 0.1 m-3 or higher. A model suggests that this is the threshold level above which foraging may be energetically profitable. Insect density was determined mainly by air temperature, and reached the threshold level at 6–10°C. Mean temperature during early summer in six years was correlated with the date of parturition. This suggests that periods when foraging was not energetically profitable were spent in torpor.

Feeding activity of the northern bat Eptesicus nilssoni during pregnancy and lactation.

https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/ws/files/113236521/Manuscript.pdf

Jens Rydell

Papers

Timing of foraging flights of three species of bats in relation to insect activity and predation risk

Bat Mortality at Wind Turbines in Northwestern Europe

Impacts of wind energy development on bats : A global perspective

Feeding activity of the northern bat Eptesicus nilssoni during pregnancy and lactation.

Testing the performances of automated identification of bat echolocation calls: A request for prudence