Hydrogen technologies have experienced cycles of excessive expectations followed by disillusion. Nonetheless, a growing body of evidence suggests these technologies form an attractive option for the deep decarbonisation of global energy systems, and that recent improvements in their cost and performance point towards economic viability as well. This paper is a comprehensive review of the potential role that hydrogen could play in the provision of electricity, heat, industry, transport and energy storage in a low-carbon energy system, and an assessment of the status of hydrogen in being able to fulfil that potential. The picture that emerges is one of qualified promise: hydrogen is well established in certain niches such as forklift trucks, while mainstream applications are now forthcoming. Hydrogen vehicles are available commercially in several countries, and 225 000 fuel cell home heating systems have been sold. This represents a step change from the situation of only five years ago. This review shows that challenges around cost and performance remain, and considerable improvements are still required for hydrogen to become truly competitive. But such competitiveness in the medium-term future no longer seems an unrealistic prospect, which fully justifies the growing interest and policy support for these technologies around the world.

https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2019/ee/c8ee01157e

The role of hydrogen and fuel cells in the global energy system

Today’s electric vehicles are almost exclusively powered by lithium-ion batteries, but there is a long way to go before electric vehicles become dominant in the global automotive market. In addition to policy support, widespread deployment of electric vehicles requires high-performance and low-cost energy storage technologies, including not only batteries but also alternative electrochemical devices. Here, we provide a comprehensive evaluation of various batteries and hydrogen fuel cells that have the greatest potential to succeed in commercial applications. Three sectors that are not well served by current lithium-ion-powered electric vehicles, namely the long-range, low-cost and high-utilization transportation markets, are discussed. The technological properties that must be improved to fully enable these electric vehicle markets include specific energy, cost, safety and power grid compatibility. Six energy storage and conversion technologies that possess varying combinations of these improved characteristics are compared and separately evaluated for each market. The remainder of the Review briefly discusses the technological status of these clean energy technologies, emphasizing barriers that must be overcome. Recent years have seen significant growth of electric vehicles and extensive development of energy storage technologies. This Review evaluates the potential of a series of promising batteries and hydrogen fuel cells in their deployment in automotive electrification.

Batteries and fuel cells for emerging electric vehicle markets

http://web.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/JDEnPolicyPt1.pdf

Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part I: Technologies, energy resources, quantities and areas of infrastructure, and materials

This paper provides a comprehensive review of fuel cell science and engineering with a focus on hydrogen fuel cells. The paper provides a concise, up-to-date review of fuel cell fundamentals; history; competing technologies; types; advantages and challenges; portable, stationary, and transportation applications and markets; current status of research-and-development; future targets; design levels; thermodynamic and electrochemical principles; system evaluation factors; and prospects and outlook. The most current data from industry and academia have been used with the relation between fuel cell fundamentals and applications highlighted throughout the manuscript.

An overview of fuel cell technology: Fundamentals and applications

A review of the applications of nanofluids in solar energy

Re-envisioning the role of hydrogen in a sustainable energy economy

Direct coupling of an electrolyser to a solar PV system for generating hydrogen

Hydrogen produced from low-emission primary energy sources, particularly renewable energy, is a potential alternative transport fuel to gasoline and diesel that can contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving global energy security. Hydrogen fuelling stations are one of the most important parts of the distribution infrastructure required to support the operation of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles and hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles. If there is to be substantial market penetration of hydrogen vehicles in the transport sector, the introduction of commercial hydrogen vehicles and the network of fuelling stations to supply them with hydrogen must take place simultaneously. The present paper thus reviews the current state of the art and deployment of hydrogen fuelling stations. It is found that by 2013, there were 224 working hydrogen stations distributed over 28 countries. Some 43% of these stations were located in North and South America, 34% in Europe, 23% in Asia, and none in Australia. The state of the art in the range of hydrogen production processes is briefly reviewed. The importance of producing hydrogen using renewable energy sources is emphasised for a transition to hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to contribute to greenhouse gas emission reduction targets. 2.3–5.8/H2kg for SMR A classification of hydrogen refuelling stations is introduced, based on the primary energy source used to produce the hydrogen, the production process, and whether the hydrogen is made on site or delivered to the site. The current state of deployment of hydrogen fuelling stations in each major region of the world is then reviewed in detail. The costs of producing hydrogen vary from $1.8 to 2.9/H2 kg for Coal gasification, 2.3–5.8/H2 kg for SMR, $6–7.4/H2 kg for wind power and $6.3–25.4/H2 kg depending on the cost of the PV system. The lowest cost of hydrogen is nearing competitiveness with petroleum fuels. Finally conclusions are drawn about the progress to date in establishing this crucial component of the infrastructure to enable hydrogen-powered vehicles to become a commercial reality.

John Andrews

Papers

Re-envisioning the role of hydrogen in a sustainable energy economy

Direct coupling of an electrolyser to a solar PV system for generating hydrogen

Automotive hydrogen fuelling stations: An international review

Heat extraction methods from salinity-gradient solar ponds and introduction of a novel system of heat extraction for improved efficiency

Optimal coupling of PV arrays to PEM electrolysers in solar–hydrogen systems for remote area power supply