抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism

This paper reviews the origins and definitions of social capital in the writings of Bourdieu, Loury, and Coleman, among other authors. It distinguishes four sources of social capital and examines their dynamics. Applications of the concept in the sociological literature emphasize its role in social control, in family support, and in benefits mediated by extrafamilial networks. I provide examples of each of these positive functions. Negative consequences of the same processes also deserve attention for a balanced picture of the forces at play. I review four such consequences and illustrate them with relevant examples. Recent writings on social capital have extended the concept from an individual asset to a feature of communities and even nations. The final sections describe this conceptual stretch and examine its limitations. I argue that, as shorthand for the positive consequences of sociability, social capital has a definite place in sociological theory. However, excessive extensions of the concept may j...

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Social Capital: Its Origins and Applications in Modern Sociology

世界経済・社会統計 = World development indicators

Introduction 1. Woman's Place in Man's Life Cycle 2. Images of Relationship 3. Concepts of Self and Morality 4. Crisis and Transition 5. Women's Rights and Women's Judgment 6. Visions of Maturity References Index of Study Participants General Index

In a Different Voice. Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Cambridge, MA (Harvard University Press) 1982.

Reporting a study of German 2-child families, the article focuses on a neglected issue in value transmission studies: contemporaneous societal context. Parent-child value similarity depends not only on family characteristics but also on zeitgeist, the modal value climate of a society. To evaluate the role of zeitgeist in value transmission, differences in parent-child value similarity between families agreeing and disagreeing with the zeitgeist are studied, focusing on a core value of modern societies: hierarchic self-interest. Results show a weak general zeitgeist effect. A family's relative position vis-a-vis the societal value climate, however, is shown to strongly influence intergenerational similarity in hierarchic self-interest, families distant from the zeitgeist showing a much higher intergenerational value similarity than families close to the zeitgeist. Key Words: adolescence, family interaction, intergenerational value transmission, measurement, panel study, social context. The present study examines the similarity of parent and offspring value orientations in the domain of hierarchic self-interest, a value syndrome described by Hagan, Hefler, Clasen, Boehnke, and Merkens (1998), resembling Sidanius and Pratto's (1999) social dominance orientation. The paper does so by reporting empirical evidence from a German panel study of parents and their adolescent children. Similarity between parent and offspring values can originate from several sources: (a) direct and mediated transmission of parents' values onto their children, (b) adaptation of parents to the values and attitudes of their children, and (c) parents and children being affected similarly by the context in which they live (Knafo, 2003; Kohn, 1983). A substantial body of research has ascertained an influence of parental value orientations on offspring values as well as on actual offspring behavior (Schonpflug, 2001 ). In the realm of family values and marriage behavior, a series of studies by Axinn and Thornton (1993) can serve as a prominent example (see also Barber, 2000). The reverse influence has also found considerable empirical support, dating back to early work by Lerner and Spanier (1978). A recent monograph offers ample evidence for this direction of influence (Ambert, 1992), also supported in a study by Pinquart and Silbereisen (2004). Intrafamilial value transmission, however, takes place not in an isolated family-only environment but in a specific societal context. All members of a family are in permanent exchange with this context through peers, mass media, schooling, or work groups. Context effects can proceed from the educational system, the socioeconomic situation, or the societal value climate of a given time, as reflected for example in public opinion. Such effects have been given little attention in research on value transmission in families. Rindfuss, Liao, and Tsuya (1992) pointed to "the broader societal context" (p. 821) as a powerful force influencing both parent and offspring values, acting as a similarization agent vis-a-vis both generations' value preferences. Unfortunately, there is little consensus on how to conceptualize and measure the influence of the broader societal context; that is, how to link the societal (macro) level and the individual (micro) level. In the literature, there are two general lines of thinking on how to include the broader societal context in research on parent-offspring value similarity and value transmission. The first might best be labeled a structural, the second a constructivist viewpoint. Kohn (1983), as a representative of the structural viewpoint, included the broader societal context in his value transmission studies by integrating variables representing the workplace, peers of the parent and the offspring generation, and neighbor(hood)s. He showed that the influence of mothers and fathers on child values depends on social class, and he related this finding to differential degrees of occupational or educational self-determination of the father and the mother. …

Parent‐Child Value Similarity: The Role of Zeitgeist

Xenophobia is a widespread phenomenon around the world. Xenophobic incidents occurring in Germany, however, have always drawn high media attention for obvious historical reasons. The current article elaborates on the development of xenophobia among German adolescents in the 1990s. Using survey data from a large, ongoing longitudinal study of youth from East and West Berlin, trends of change in adolescent xenophobia are analyzed. Two main hypotheses are tested, namely that the subterranean value orientation of market-oriented economies, here called hierarchic self-interest, and low self-esteem are the driving forces behind xenophobia among 13- to 16-year-olds. In a two-wave cross-sectional study and a two-cohort longitudinal study, it is shown that individual preferences for hierarchic self-interest are indeed a powerful predictor of levels of xenophobia, though not of change, in the adolescent years under scrutiny. Admitting to a low self-esteem had an effect opposite to the one hypothesized. Those youth most willing to describe themselves as doubtful about their self were the ones with the lowest level and the least increase of xenophobia during the adolescent years. Context variables, like living in East as opposed to West Berlin or being on a disadvantaged school track, had a xenophobia-enhancing effect over and above hierarchic self-interest and self-esteem.

On the Development of Xenophobia in Germany: The Adolescent Years

Living in complex social worlds, individuals encounter discordant values across life contexts, potentially resulting in different importance of values across contexts. Value differentiation is defined here as the degree to which values receive different importance depending on the context in which they are considered. Early and mid-adolescents (N = 3,497; M = 11.45 years, SD = 0.87 and M = 16.10 years, SD = 0.84, respectively) from 4 cultural groups (majority and former Soviet Union immigrants in Israel and Germany) rated their values in 3 contexts (family, school, and country). Value differentiation varied across individuals. Early adolescents showed lower value differentiation than mid-adolescents. Immigrant (especially first generation) adolescents, showed higher value differentiation than majority adolescents, reflecting the complex social reality they face while negotiating cultures.

Value Differentiation in Adolescence: The Role of Age and Cultural Complexity

Are subcultural forms of crime and delinquency wholesale rejections or distorted reflections of core values of market-oriented societies? Current evidence casts doubt on the former position, while contemporary theory suggests the possibility that a culture of competition encourages hierarchic forms of self-interest, leading to the acceptance of inequality and anomic amorality and, ultimately, to group-related delinquency. Oddly, the effects of this culture of competition and hierarchic self-interest have not previously been documented empirically in sociological or criminological research, even though this step is fundamental and crucial to the argument that subcultural crime and delinquency derive from market-driven values. We analyze data from four sites in East and West Germany to identify the strands of a subterranean causal web that link core values of market society to subcultural delinquency.

Klaus Boehnke

Papers

Parent‐Child Value Similarity: The Role of Zeitgeist

On the Development of Xenophobia in Germany: The Adolescent Years

Value Differentiation in Adolescence: The Role of Age and Cultural Complexity

Subterranean sources of subcultural delinquency beyond the American dream

What I think and feel—German experience with the revised form of the children's manifest anxiety scale