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Epidemiological evidence indicates that regular physical activity and/or frequent structured exercise reduces the incidence of many chronic diseases in older age, including communicable diseases such as viral and bacterial infections, as well as non-communicable diseases such as cancer and chronic inflammatory disorders. Despite the apparent health benefits achieved by leading an active lifestyle, which imply that regular physical activity and frequent exercise enhance immune competency and regulation, the effect of a single bout of exercise on immune function remains a controversial topic. Indeed, to this day, it is perceived by many that vigorous exercise can temporarily suppress immune function. In the first part of this review, we deconstruct the key pillars which lay the foundation to this theory – referred to as the ‘open window’ hypothesis – and highlight that: (i) limited reliable evidence exists to support the claim that vigorous exercise heightens risk of opportunistic infections; (ii) purported changes to mucosal immunity, namely salivary IgA levels, after exercise do not signpost a period of immune suppression; and (iii) the dramatic reductions to lymphocyte numbers and function 1-2 hours after exercise reflects a transient and time-dependent redistribution of immune cells to peripheral tissues, resulting in a heightened state of immune surveillance and immune regulation, as opposed to immune suppression. In the second part of this review, we provide evidence that frequent exercise enhances – rather than suppresses – immune competency, and highlight key findings from human vaccination studies which show heightened responses to bacterial and viral antigens following bouts of exercise. Finally, in the third part of this review, we highlight that regular physical activity and frequent exercise might limit or delay ageing of the immune system, providing further evidence that exercise is beneficial for immunological health. In summary, the over-arching aim of this review is to rebalance opinion over the perceived relationships between exercise and immune function. We emphasise that it is a misconception to label any form of acute exercise as immunosuppressive, and, instead, exercise most likely improves immune competency across the lifespan.

/pdf/debunking-the-myth-of-exercise-induced-immune-suppression-19hrdk2kt9.pdf

Debunking the Myth of Exercise-induced Immune Suppression: Redefining the Impact of Exercise on Immunological Health Across the Lifespan.

Remodelling of the immune system with age - immunosenescence - is a substantial contributor to poor health in older adults, with increasing risk of infections, cancer and chronic inflammatory disease contributing to age-related multi-morbidity. What is seldom considered when examining the immune response of an aged individual is that the immune system is profoundly influenced by physical activity. Habitual physical activity levels decline with age, with significant consequences for muscle mass and function. Skeletal muscle is a major immune regulatory organ and generates a range of proteins, termed myokines, which have anti-inflammatory and immunoprotective effects. Several studies indicate that maintaining physical activity has immune benefits in older adults, for example, it reduces the systemic inflammation associated with chronic age-related diseases. Here, we discuss how physical activity can prevent or ameliorate age-related multi-morbidity by boosting immune function, and we consider whether physical activity could improve immunotherapy outcomes in age-related conditions such as cancer.

/pdf/can-physical-activity-ameliorate-immunosenescence-and-39u4liax0v.pdf

Can physical activity ameliorate immunosenescence and thereby reduce age-related multi-morbidity?

Summary
It is widely accepted that aging is accompanied by remodelling of the immune system including thymic atrophy and increased frequency of senescent T cells, leading to immune compromise. However, physical activity, which influences immunity but declines dramatically with age, is not considered in this literature. We assessed immune profiles in 125 adults (55–79 years) who had maintained a high level of physical activity (cycling) for much of their adult lives, 75 age-matched older adults and 55 young adults not involved in regular exercise. The frequency of naive T cells and recent thymic emigrants (RTE) were both higher in cyclists compared with inactive elders, and RTE frequency in cyclists was no different to young adults. Compared with their less active counterparts, the cyclists had significantly higher serum levels of the thymoprotective cytokine IL-7 and lower IL-6, which promotes thymic atrophy. Cyclists also showed additional evidence of reduced immunesenescence, namely lower Th17 polarization and higher B regulatory cell frequency than inactive elders. Physical activity did not protect against all aspects of immunesenescence: CD28−veCD57+ve senescent CD8 T-cell frequency did not differ between cyclists and inactive elders. We conclude that many features of immunesenescence may be driven by reduced physical activity with age.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/acel.12750

Major features of immunesenescence, including reduced thymic output, are ameliorated by high levels of physical activity in adulthood.

The editors, in their inaugural issue, state their principal objectives to be "the exchange of ideas and the rapid communication of research findings in this multi-disciplinary field of inquiry." Quality of life research measures health impairments, functional health status, and health perceptions, as opposed to objective clinical states or mere survival. The editors' objectives are well achieved in the first seven issues. Traditional research articles facilitate the exchange of ideas, an example being one on the use of patient reports to assess health-related quality of life after hip replacement. Formats for examining various issues included a review article on generic health-related quality of life measures for human immunodeficiency virus research, a conference report on quality of life after open heart surgery, book reviews, and special issue articles. The editorial board and authors are not only multidisciplinary but hold a broad range of affiliations in academia, research institutions, and clinical settings,

Quality of Life Research: An International Journal of Quality of Life Aspects of Treatment, Care and Rehabilitation

This study investigated the influence of personality characteristics and gender on adolescents' perception of risk and their risk-taking behaviour. Male and female participants (157 females: 116 males, aged 13-20) completed self-report measures on risk perception, risk-taking and personality. Male participants perceived behaviours as less risky, reportedly took more risks, were less sensitive to negative outcomes and less socially anxious than female participants. Path analysis identified a model in which age, behavioural inhibition and impulsiveness directly influenced risk perception, while age, social anxiety, impulsiveness, sensitivity to reward, behavioural inhibition and risk perception itself were directly or indirectly associated with risk-taking behaviour. Age and behavioural inhibition had direct relationships with social anxiety, and reward sensitivity was associated with impulsiveness. The model was representative for the whole sample and male and female groups separately. The observed relationship between age and social anxiety and the influence this may have on risk-taking behaviour could be key for reducing adolescent risk-taking behaviour. Even though adolescents may understand the riskiness of their behaviour and estimate their vulnerability to risk at a similar level to adults, factors such as anxiety regarding social situations, sensitivity to reward and impulsiveness may exert their influence and make these individuals prone to taking risks. If these associations are proven causal, these factors are, and will continue to be, important targets in prevention and intervention efforts.

/pdf/risk-perception-and-risk-taking-behaviour-during-adolescence-2bbxutbwic.pdf

Risk perception and risk-taking behaviour during adolescence: the influence of personality and gender

Background Dysfunctional neutrophils with advanced age are a hallmark of immunosenescence. Reduced migration and bactericidal activity increase the risk of infection. It remains unclear why neutrophil dysfunction occurs with age. Physical activity and structured exercise have been suggested to improve immune function in the elderly. The aim of this study was to assess a comprehensive range of neutrophil functions and determine their association with habitual physical activity. Method Physical activity levels were determined in 211 elderly (67 ± 5 years) individuals by 7-days of accelerometry wear. Twenty of the most physically active men and women were matched for age and gender to twenty of the least physically active individuals. Groups were compared for neutrophil migration, phagocytosis, oxidative burst, cell surface receptor expression, metabolic health parameters and systemic inflammation. Groups were also compared against ten young participants (23 ± 4 years). Results The most active group completed over twice as many steps/day as the least active group ( p p  = 0.007) and body fat percentages ( p  = 0.029). Neutrophils migrated towards IL-8 better in the most active group compared to the least active ( p p  > 0.05). These differences remained after adjusting for BMI, body fat and plasma metabolic markers which were different between groups. Correlations revealed that steps/day, higher adiponectin and lower insulin were positively associated with migratory ability ( p p  > 0.05 for both). CD11b was higher in the most active group compared to the least active ( p  = 0.048). No differences between activity groups or young controls were observed for neutrophil phagocytosis or oxidative burst in response to Escherichia coli ( p  > 0.05). The young group had lower concentrations of IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1, CRP, IL-10 and IL-13 ( p Conclusion These data suggest that impaired neutrophil migration, but not bactericidal function, in older adults may be, in part, the result of reduced physical activity. A 2-fold difference in physical activity is associated with better preserved neutrophil migratory dynamics in healthy older people. As a consequence increasing habitual physical activity may be beneficial for neutrophil mediated immunity.

/pdf/habitual-physical-activity-is-associated-with-the-1vjac9wblf.pdf

Laura Murphy

Papers

Risk perception and risk-taking behaviour during adolescence: the influence of personality and gender

Habitual physical activity is associated with the maintenance of neutrophil migratory dynamics in healthy older adults