This review is essentially an update of one entitled “πBonding and The Lone Pair Effect in Multiple Bonds Between Heavier Main Group Elements” which was published more than 10 years ago in this journal.1 The coverage of that survey was focused on the synthesis, structure, and bonding of stable compounds2 of heavier main group elements that correspond to the skeletal drawings reproduced in Tables 1 and 2. A row of numbers is listed at the bottom of each column in these tables. This refers to the number of stable complexes from each class that are currently known. The numbers in parentheses refer to the number of stable species that were known at the time of the previous review. Clearly, many of the compound classes listed have undergone considerable expansion although some remain stubbornly rare. The most significant developments for each class will be discussed in detail under the respective sections. As will be seen, there are also a limited number of multiple bonded heavier main group species that do not fit neatly in the classifications in Tables 1 and 2. However, to keep the review to a manageable length, the limits and exclusions, which parallel those used earlier, are summarized as follows: (i) discussion is mainly confined to compounds where experimental data on stable, isolated species have been obtained, (ii) stable compounds having multiple bonding between heavier main group elements and transition metals are not generally discussed, (iii) compounds in which a multiple bonded heavier main group element is incorporated within a ring are generally not covered, and (iv) hypervalent main group compounds that may incorporate faux multiple bonding are generally excluded. Such compounds are distinguished from those in Tables 1 and 2 in that they apparently require the use of more than four valence bonding orbitals at one or more of the bonded atoms. The remainder of this review is organized in a similar manner to that of the previous one wherein the compounds to be discussed are classified according to those summarized in Tables 1 and 2. The key unifying feature of almost all molecules discussed in this review is that they are generally stabilized by the use of bulky substituents which block associative or various decomposition pathways.3 Since the previous review was published in 1999, several review articles that cover parts of the subject matter have appeared.4

π-Bonding and the Lone Pair Effect in Multiple Bonds Involving Heavier Main Group Elements: Developments in the New Millennium

Carbon chemistry exhibits a rich variety in bonding patterns, with homo- or heteronuclear multiple bonds involving sp-hybridized carbon atoms as found in molecules such as acetylenes, nitriles, allenes and carbon dioxide. Carbon's heavier homologues in group 14 of the periodic table—including silicon, germanium and tin—were long thought incapable of forming multiple bonds because of the less effective pπ–pπ orbital overlap involved in the multiple bonds. However, bulky substituents can protect unsaturated bonds and stabilize compounds with formally sp-hybridized heavy group-14 atoms1,2: stable germanium2, tin3 and lead4 analogues of acetylene derivatives and a marginally stable tristannaallene5 have now been reported. However, no stable silicon compounds with formal sp-silicon atoms have been isolated. Evidence for the existence of a persistent disilaacetylene6 and trapping7 of transient 2-silaallenes and other X = Si = X′ type compounds (X, X′ = O, CR2, NR, and so on) are also known, but stable silicon compounds with formally sp-hybridized silicon atoms have not yet been isolated. Here we report the synthesis of a thermally stable, crystalline trisilaallene derivative containing a formally sp-hybridized silicon atom. We find that, in contrast to linear carbon allenes, the trisilaallene is significantly bent. The central silicon in the molecule is dynamically disordered, which we ascribe to ready rotation of the central silicon atom around the molecular axis.

A stable silicon-based allene analogue with a formally sp -hybridized silicon atom

Publisher Summary Remarkable progress of the chemistry of disilenes seems to encourage building up the modern general theory of bonding, structure, and reactions applied for the heavier main-group element chemistry in the near future; the general theory should include the theory for organic chemistry as a special case. This chapter discusses present advances in novel synthetic methods for various types of stable disilenes. Stable disilenes and other unsaturated compounds of heavier group-14 elements show unique spectroscopic properties that cannot be easily obtained from organic compounds. Bonding and structures of disilenes have also been discussed in the chapter. For a detailed discussion on the structure of disilenes, it is helpful to understand the intrinsic difference in the bonding between disilene and ethylene. The chapter highlights reactions and mechanisms of disilenes. During the past decade, many new types of reactions have been found for novel types of disilenes such as cyclic and bicyclic disilenes and conjugated tetrasiladienes. Mechanistic studies have recently been performed on several fundamental reactions of disilenes both theoretically and experimentally, and have greatly deepened the understanding of their reaction pathways, their potential energy surfaces, the factors determining the rates and stereochemistry, and so on.

Progress in the Chemistry of Stable Disilenes

The structure and surface energies of the cleaved, reconstructed, and fully hydroxylated (001) α-quartz surface of various thicknesses are investigated with periodic density functional theory (DFT). The properties of the cleaved and hydroxylated surface are reproduced with a slab thickness of 18 atomic layers, while a thicker 27-layer slab is necessary for the reconstructed surface. The performance of the hybrid DFT functional B3LYP, using an atomic basis set, is compared with the generalised gradient approximation, PBE, employing plane waves. Both methodologies give similar structures and surface energies for the cleaved and reconstructed surfaces, which validates studying these surfaces with hybrid DFT. However, there is a slight difference between the PBE and B3LYP approach for the geometry of the hydrogen bonded network on the hydroxylated surface. The PBE adsorption energy of CO on a surface silanol site is in good agreement with experimental values, suggesting that this method is more accurate for hydrogen bonded structures than B3LYP. New hybrid functionals, however, yield improved weak interactions. Since these functionals also give superior activation energies, we recommend applying the new functionals to contemporary issues involving the silica surface and adsorbates on this surface.

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Structure and stability of the (001) α-quartz surface

Some recent advances in the chemistry of silicon and its homologues in low coordination states

In contrast to carbon, silicon does not readily form double bonds, and compounds containing silicon-silicon double bonds can usually be stabilized only by protection with bulky substituents. We have isolated a silicon analog of spiropentadiene 1, a carbon double-ring compound that has not been isolated to date. In the crystal structure of tetrakis[tri(t-butyldimethylsilyl)silyl]spiropentasiladiene 2, a substantial deviation from the perpendicular arrangement of the two rings is observed, and the silicon-silicon double bonds are shown to be distorted. Spectroscopic data indicate pronounced interaction between two remote silicon-silicon double bonds in the molecule. Silicon-silicon bonds may be more accessible to synthesis than previously assumed.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/290/5491/504.full.pdf

Makoto Tamura

Papers

A stable bicyclic compound with two Si=Si double bonds.

Photochemical isomerization and X-ray structure of stable [tris(trialkylsilyl)silyl]cyclotrisilene

Lithiated 1,3-Disilabicyclo[1.1.0]butanes Synthesized via Selective Cleavage of Exocyclic Si-Si Bonds on Bridgehead Silicon Atoms