A wide variety of media can be used in learning, including distance learning, such as print, lectures, conference sections, tutors, pictures, video, sound, and computers. Any one instance of distance learning will make choices among these media, perhaps using several.

Multimedia in Learning

1. Interaction. The interactions learners have with each other build interpersonal skills, such as listening, politely interrupting, expressing ideas, raising questions, disagreeing, paraphrasing, negotiating, and asking for help. 2. Interdependence. Learners must depend on one another to accomplish a common objective. Each group member has specific tasks to complete, and successful completion of each member’s tasks results in attaining the overall group objective.

将“Cooperative Learning”融入课堂——浅谈英语素质教育

Kirschner, P. A., Kirschner, F. C., & Paas, F. (2009). Cognitive load theory. In E. M. Anderman & L. H. Anderman (Eds.). Psychology of classroom learning: An encyclopedia, Volume 1, a-j (pp. 205-209). Detroit, MI: Macmillan Reference.

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Cognitive Load Theory

Traditionally, Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) has focused on instructional methods to decrease extraneous cognitive load so that available cognitive resources can be fully devoted to learning. This article strengthens the cognitive base of CLT by linking cognitive processes to the processes used by biological evolution. The article discusses recent developments in CLT related to the current view in instructional design that real-life tasks should be the driving force for complex learning. First, the complexity, or intrinsic cognitive load, of such tasks is often high so that new methods are needed to manage cognitive load. Second, complex learning is a lengthy process requiring learners’ motivational states and levels of expertise development to be taken into account. Third, this perspective requires more advanced methods to measure expertise and cognitive load so that instruction can be flexibly adapted to individual learners’ needs. Experimental studies are reviewed to illustrate these recent developments. Guidelines for future research are provided.

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Cognitive Load Theory and Complex Learning: Recent Developments and Future Directions

Abstract A fundamental hypothesis underlying research on multimedia learning is that multimedia instructional messages that are designed in light of how the human mind works are more likely to lead to meaningful learning than those that are not. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) is based on three cognitive science principles of learning: the human information processing system includes dual channels for visual/pictorial and auditory/verbal processing (i.e., dual-channels assumption); each channel has limited capacity for processing (i.e., limited capacity assumption); and active learning entails carrying out a coordinated set of cognitive processes during learning (i.e., active processing assumption). The cognitive theory of multimedia learning specifies five cognitive processes in multimedia learning: selecting relevant words from the presented text or narration, selecting relevant images from the presented illustrations, organizing the selected words into a coherent verbal representation, organizing selected images into a coherent pictorial representation, and integrating the pictorial and verbal representations and prior knowledge. Multimedia instructional messages should be designed to prime these processes. The Case for Multimedia Learning What is the rationale for a theory of multimedia learning? People learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone. This assertion – which can be called the multimedia principle – underlies much of the interest in multimedia learning. For thousands of years, words have been the major format for instruction – including spoken words, and within the last few hundred years, printed words.

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

https://www.raypastore.com/knowledge/courses/545/schontz_2003_represenations.pdf

Construction and interference in learning from multiple representation

Referring to current research on self-regulated learning, we analyse individual regulation in terms of a set of specific sequences of regulatory activities. Successful students perform regulatory activities such as analysing, planning, monitoring and evaluating cognitive and motivational aspects during learning not only with a higher frequency than less successful learners, but also in a different order—or so we hypothesize. Whereas most research has concentrated on frequency analysis, so far, little is known about how students’ regulatory activities unfold over time. Thus, the aim of our approach is to also analyse the temporal order of spontaneous individual regulation activities. In this paper, we demonstrate how various methods developed in process mining research can be applied to identify process patterns in self-regulated learning events as captured in verbal protocols. We also show how theoretical SRL process models can be tested with process mining methods. Thinking aloud data from a study with 38 participants learning in a self-regulated manner from a hypermedia are used to illustrate the methodological points.

Process mining techniques for analysing patterns and strategies in students’ self-regulated learning

http://stc.huji.ac.il/thj/articles_tj/articles_english/Learning%20and%20Instruction%2012_1%20(2002)/Managing%20cognitive%20load%97recent%20trends%20in.pdf

Managing cognitive load—recent trends in cognitive load theory

Managing Cognitive Load--Recent Trends in Cognitive Load Theory. Commentary.

Recent research on metacognition points out the crucial role of on-line methods when endeavouring to conduct valid assessments of metacognitive skills. Presently, different on-line methods are used, however, it is still a question of research whether and how they affect students’ learning behaviour and learning outcome. Thus, the aim of this study is to quasi-experimentally analyse the effects of two on-line verbalisation methods on learning performance. By means of the thinking-aloud method, students in one experimental group (n = 24) were instructed to read and think aloud during learning. With the reflection when prompted method, students of another experimental group (n = 24) were prompted at each navigational step to reflect on the reasons why they chose specific information. Students in the control group (n = 22) learned without being instructed to verbalise. All three groups were treated identically except for the different use of verbalisation assessment methods. The students’ task was to learn the concepts and principles of operant conditioning presented in a hypermedium within 30 min. The students’ learning sessions were videotaped and learning performance was obtained immediately afterwards. Based on Ericsson and Simon’s (Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data, MIT, Cambridge, 1993) model, no performance differences between the thinking aloud and the control group were hypothesised. However, prompting students for metacognitive reflection should affect learning performance positively, which is confirmed by the results only in tendency for transfer performance. Implications for on-line assessment methods of metacognitive skill will be discussed.

Maria Bannert

Papers

Construction and interference in learning from multiple representation

Process mining techniques for analysing patterns and strategies in students’ self-regulated learning

Managing cognitive load—recent trends in cognitive load theory

Managing Cognitive Load--Recent Trends in Cognitive Load Theory. Commentary.

Assessment of metacognitive skills by means of instruction to think aloud and reflect when prompted. Does the verbalisation method affect learning