抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

I have developed "tennis elbow" from lugging this book around the past four weeks, but it is worth the pain, the effort, and the aspirin. It is also worth the (relatively speaking) bargain price. Including appendixes, this book contains 894 pages of text. The entire panorama of the neural sciences is surveyed and examined, and it is comprehensive in its scope, from genomes to social behaviors. The editors explicitly state that the book is designed as "an introductory text for students of biology, behavior, and medicine," but it is hard to imagine any audience, interested in any fragment of neuroscience at any level of sophistication, that would not enjoy this book. The editors have done a masterful job of weaving together the biologic, the behavioral, and the clinical sciences into a single tapestry in which everyone from the molecular biologist to the practicing psychiatrist can find and appreciate his or

Principles of Neural Science

https://users.dimi.uniud.it/~antonio.dangelo/Robotica/2012/helper/leggedRobot/Ijspeert08NN.pdf

2008 Special Issue: Central pattern generators for locomotion control in animals and robots: A review

Cardiac injury in mammals and amphibians typically leads to scarring, with minimal regeneration of heart muscle. Here, we demonstrate histologically that zebrafish fully regenerate hearts within 2 months of 20% ventricular resection. Regeneration occurs through robust proliferation of cardiomyocytes localized at the leading epicardial edge of the new myocardium. The hearts of zebrafish with mutations in the Mps1 mitotic checkpoint kinase, a critical cell cycle regulator, failed to regenerate and formed scars. Thus, injury-induced cardiomyocyte proliferation in zebrafish can overcome scar formation, allowing cardiac muscle regeneration. These findings indicate that zebrafish will be useful for genetically dissecting the molecular mechanisms of cardiac regeneration.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/298/5601/2188.full.pdf

Heart Regeneration in Zebrafish

The etiology of neurodegenerative diseases remains enigmatic; however, evidence for defects in energy metabolism, excitotoxicity, and for oxidative damage is increasingly compelling. It is likely that there is a complex interplay between these mechanisms. A defect in energy metabolism may lead to neuronal depolarization, activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate excitatory amino acid receptors, and increases in intracellular calcium, which are buffered by mitochondria. Mitochondria are the major intracellular source of free radicals, and increased mitochondrial calcium concentrations enhance free radical generation. Mitochondrial DNA is particularly susceptible to oxidative stress, and there is evidence of age-dependent damage and deterioration of respiratory enzyme activities with normal aging. This may contribute to the delayed onset and age dependence of neurodegenerative diseases. There is evidence for increased oxidative damage to macromolecules in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. Potential therapeutic approaches include glutamate release inhibitors, excitatory amino acid antagonists, strategies to improve mitochondrial function, free radical scavengers, and trophic factors. All of these approaches appear promising in experimental studies and are now being applied to human studies.

Aging, energy, and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases.

As with all extant organisms, the four major vertebrate developmental model animals (zebrafish, Xenopus, mouse, chick) represent provisional end results of evolution (see Fig. 1). Their brain phenotypes are a mosaic of retained, ancestral (symplesiomorphic) vertebrate commonalities (such as the presence of a noradrenergic locus coeruleus) and later acquired, derived (apomorphic) specializations. Although some of these novelties are unique for a given model system (such as the six-layered cortex for the mouse, the everted telencephalon for the zebrafish, and the dorsal ventricular ridge for the chick), they may be shared with other taxa (and, thus, be synapomorphic) at some lower systematic level (such as the six-layered cortex by any two mammals, the everted telencephalon by any two actinopterygians, or the dorsal ventricular ridge by any two sauropsidian taxa). Model organisms are mostly studied with respect to retained features, aimed at elucidating common processes in brain function, development, and evolution. Alternatively, model organisms may be used in a comparative context with the goal of understanding the differences as well as the commonalities and, hence, the evolution of divergent brain phenotypes. This comparative approach has been used with great success in the analysis of tetrapod brains, for example, in resolving questions regarding the mammalian vs. the sauropsid (reptilian/avian) forebrain phenotypes, and these results are briefly reviewed below. However, the major focus of this Review is to discuss related data in teleosts, mostly by explicitly comparing mouse and zebrafish forebrains.

Teleostean and mammalian forebrains contrasted: Evidence from genes to behavior.

The teleostean (zebrafish) dopaminergic system ascending to the subpallium (striatum) is located in the basal diencephalon (posterior tuberculum).

Neuroanatomy of the zebrafish brain

1 Introduction: neuroanatomy for a neurogenetic model system.- Differentiation of first neurons and their associated tracts and commissures in the embryonic zebrafish brain.- Neuromeres and expression of regulatory genes in the embryonic zebrafish.- Generation of zebrafish mutants via saturation mutagenesis.- 2 Taxonomic background.- 3 Technical details.- Histology.- Preparation of figures.- 4 The brain of the zebrafish Danio rerio: an overview.- Telencephalon.- Olfactory bulbs.- Area ventralis telencephali.- Area dorsalis telencephali.- Telencephalic tracts and commissures.- Diencephalon (including synencephalon and pretectum).- Area praeoptica.- Epithalamus.- Dorsal thalamus.- Ventral thalamus.- Posterior tuberculum.- Hypothalamus.- Synencephalon.- Pretectum.- Diencephalic tracts and commissures.- Mesencephalon.- Tectum opticum.- Torus semicircularis.- Tegmentum.- Rhombencephalon (metencephalon and myelencephalon).- Cerebellum.- Medulla oblongata.- Primary sensory and motor nuclei.- Reticular formation.- Additional medullary nuclei.- Medulla spinalis.- Brain stem/spinal tracts and commissures.- 5 The brain of the zebrafish Danio rerio: a neuroanatomical atlas.- External view.- Cross sections.- Sagittal sections.- Horizontal sections.- 6 Functional anatomy of the zebrafish brain: a comparative evaluation.- Sensory Systems in the teleostean CNS.- Olfaction.- Vision.- Mechanoreception.- Audition.- Vestibular sense.- Gustation.- General visceral sense.- Somatosensory system.- Motor and premotor systems in the teleostean CNS.- Motor nuclei of cranial nerves.- Descending spinal projections.- Reticular formation.- Integrative centers in the teleostean CNS.- Cerebellum.- Tectum opticum.- Telencephalon.- 7 Index of Latin terms.- 8 Index of English terms.- 9 Index of abbreviations.- 10 References.

Neuroanatomy of the Zebrafish Brain: A Topological Atlas

Using axonal tracers, we characterized the neurons projecting from the brain to the spinal cord as well as the terminal fields of ascending spinal projections in the brain of adult zebrafish with unlesioned or transected spinal cords. Twenty distinct brain nuclei were found to project to the spinal cord. These nuclei were similar to those found in the closely related goldfish, except that additionally the parvocellular preoptic nucleus, the medial octavolateralis nucleus, and the nucleus tangentialis, but not the facial lobe, projected to the spinal cord in zebrafish. Terminal fields of axons, visualized by anterograde tracing, were seen in the telencephalon, the diencephalon, the torus semicircularis, the optic tectum, the eminentia granularis, and throughout the ventral brainstem in unlesioned animals. Following spinal cord transection at a level approximately 3.5 mm caudal to the brainstem/spinal cord transition zone, neurons in most brain nuclei grew axons beyond the transection site into the distal spinal cord to the level of retrograde tracer application within 6 weeks. However, the individually identifiable Mauthner cells were never seen to do so up to 15 weeks after spinal cord transection. Nearly all neurons survived axotomy, and the vast majority of axons that had grown beyond the transection site belonged to previously axotomized neurons as shown by double tracing. Terminal fields were not re-established in the torus semicircularis and the eminentia granularis following spinal cord transection.

Mario F. Wullimann

Papers

Teleostean and mammalian forebrains contrasted: Evidence from genes to behavior.

The teleostean (zebrafish) dopaminergic system ascending to the subpallium (striatum) is located in the basal diencephalon (posterior tuberculum).

Neuroanatomy of the zebrafish brain

Neuroanatomy of the Zebrafish Brain: A Topological Atlas

Axonal regrowth after spinal cord transection in adult zebrafish