Many metal–insulator–metal systems show electrically induced resistive switching effects and have therefore been proposed as the basis for future non-volatile memories. They combine the advantages of Flash and DRAM (dynamic random access memories) while avoiding their drawbacks, and they might be highly scalable. Here we propose a coarse-grained classification into primarily thermal, electrical or ion-migration-induced switching mechanisms. The ion-migration effects are coupled to redox processes which cause the change in resistance. They are subdivided into cation-migration cells, based on the electrochemical growth and dissolution of metallic filaments, and anion-migration cells, typically realized with transition metal oxides as the insulator, in which electronically conducting paths of sub-oxides are formed and removed by local redox processes. From this insight, we take a brief look into molecular switching systems. Finally, we discuss chip architecture and scaling issues.

http://chialvo.org/Curso/UBACurso/DIA7/Papers/Aono_NatMat_07_Ionic%20Switching%20Memory.pdf

Nanoionics-based resistive switching memories

Redox‐Based Resistive Switching Memories – Nanoionic Mechanisms, Prospects, and Challenges

Nanocrystals (NCs) discussed in this Review are tiny crystals of metals, semiconductors, and magnetic material consisting of hundreds to a few thousand atoms each. Their size ranges from 2-3 to about 20 nm. What is special about this size regime that placed NCs among the hottest research topics of the last decades? The quantum mechanical coupling * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: dvtalapin@uchicago.edu. † The University of Chicago. ‡ Argonne National Lab. Chem. Rev. 2010, 110, 389–458 389

/pdf/prospects-of-colloidal-nanocrystals-for-electronic-and-3dxpyhl3r7.pdf

Prospects of Colloidal Nanocrystals for Electronic and Optoelectronic Applications

Memristive devices are electrical resistance switches that can retain a state of internal resistance based on the history of applied voltage and current. These devices can store and process information, and offer several key performance characteristics that exceed conventional integrated circuit technology. An important class of memristive devices are two-terminal resistance switches based on ionic motion, which are built from a simple conductor/insulator/conductor thin-film stack. These devices were originally conceived in the late 1960s and recent progress has led to fast, low-energy, high-endurance devices that can be scaled down to less than 10 nm and stacked in three dimensions. However, the underlying device mechanisms remain unclear, which is a significant barrier to their widespread application. Here, we review recent progress in the development and understanding of memristive devices. We also examine the performance requirements for computing with memristive devices and detail how the outstanding challenges could be met.

Memristive devices for computing

Phase-change materials are some of the most promising materials for data-storage applications. They are already used in rewriteable optical data storage and offer great potential as an emerging non-volatile electronic memory. This review looks at the unique property combination that characterizes phase-change materials. The crystalline state often shows an octahedral-like atomic arrangement, frequently accompanied by pronounced lattice distortions and huge vacancy concentrations. This can be attributed to the chemical bonding in phase-change alloys, which is promoted by p-orbitals. From this insight, phase-change alloys with desired properties can be designed. This is demonstrated for the optical properties of phase-change alloys, in particular the contrast between the amorphous and crystalline states. The origin of the fast crystallization kinetics is also discussed.

Phase-change materials for rewriteable data storage

Amorphous films having a component of the stoichiometric GeTe‐Sb2Te3 pseudobinary alloy system, GeSb2Te4 or Ge2Sb2Te5 representatively, were found to have featuring characteristics for optical memory material presenting a large optical change and enabling high‐speed one‐beam data rewriting. The material films being sandwiched by heat‐conductive ZnS layers can be crystallized (low power) or reamorphized (high power) by laser irradiation of very short duration, less than 50 ns. The cooling speed of the sandwiched film is extremely high: more than 1010 deg/s, which permits the molten material to convert to the amorphous state spontaneously; whereas, a low‐power pulse irradiation of the same duration changed the exposed portion into the crystalline state. The optical constant changes between the amorphous state and the crystalline state of them were measured to be large: from 4.7+i1.3 to 6.9+i2.6 and from 5.0+i1.3 to 6.5+i3.5, respectively. The crystallized portion was known to have a GeTe‐like fcc structure ...

Rapid‐phase transitions of GeTe‐Sb2Te3 pseudobinary amorphous thin films for an optical disk memory

The structure of laser-crystallized thin films of Ge2Sb2+xTe5 (0.0<x⩽1.0) formed by the sputtering method were identified by x-ray diffraction studies to be composed of two phases: one phase is chiefly NaCl type crystal with a lattice constant of about 6 A and a composition corresponding to Ge2Sb2Te5; the other phase comprises a small amount of an amorphous component such as Sb metal. Results of the Rietveld and the whole-powder-pattern fitting analyses show good agreement when assuming that (i) the 4(a) site is wholly occupied by only Te, (ii) the 4(b) site is randomly occupied by Ge or Sb atoms, and (iii) a little less than 20% of the 4(b) site is always vacant independent of the x value. The above results and the fact that halo noise rises with x increasing from 0.0 to 1.0 indicate a more precise model of crystal structure as follows. That is, Sb atoms added beyond the stoichiometric ratio, Ge2Sb2Te5, never fill up the vacancies of the 4(b) site in the NaCl type structure; the excess Sb atoms will rema...

Structure of laser-crystallized Ge2Sb2+xTe5 sputtered thin films for use in optical memory

It was found that GeTe-Sb2Te3 pseud-binary amorphous alloy films showed remarkably fast switching properties to laser irradiation. By the static laser irradiation test, the film whose composition corresponded to stoichiometric compound of GeSb2Te4 were crystallized within 50ns of pulse duration at power of 8mW, whilst they could be amorphized with the same pulse duration at power of 20mW. Direct overwriting cycle test was performed on the revolving disk system for 105 times using single laser beam. CNR of more than 50dB and erasability of -22dB were obtained for linear velocity of 22m/s and overwriting frequencies of 5 and 7 MHz. The laser powers were 22 mW for recording and 10 mW for erasing. These materials will be applicable to high data rate direct overwritable disk media.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.7567/JJAPS.26S4.61/pdf

High Speed Overwritable Phase Change Optical Disk Material

The most widely used memory materials for rewritable phase-change optical disks are the GeTe-Sb2Te3 pseudobinary compounds. Among these compounds, Ge2Sb2Te5 crystallizes into a cubic close-packed structure with a six-layer period (metastable phase) in the non-thermal equilibrium state, and a trigonal structure with a nine-layer period (stable phase) in the thermal equilibrium state. The structure of the stable phase has Ge/Sb layers in which Ge and Sb are randomly occupied, as does the structure of the metastable phase, while the conventionally estimated structure had separate layers of Ge and Te. The metastable and stable phases are very similar in that Te and Ge/Sb layers stack alternately to form the crystal. The major differences between these phases are: (i) the stable phase has pairs of adjacent Te layers that are not seen in the metastable phase and (ii) only the metastable phase contains vacancies of ca 20 at. % in the Ge/Sb layers.

Noboru Yamada

Papers

Phase-change materials for rewriteable data storage

Rapid‐phase transitions of GeTe‐Sb2Te3 pseudobinary amorphous thin films for an optical disk memory

Structure of laser-crystallized Ge2Sb2+xTe5 sputtered thin films for use in optical memory

High Speed Overwritable Phase Change Optical Disk Material

Structures of stable and metastable Ge2Sb2Te5, an intermetallic compound in GeTe-Sb2Te3 pseudobinary systems.