抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

Summary for policymakers Technical summary 1. The climate system - an overview 2. Observed climate variability and change 3. The carbon cycle and atmospheric CO2 4. Atmospheric chemistry and greenhouse gases 5. Aerosols, their direct and indirect effects 6. Radiative forcing of climate change 7. Physical climate processes and feedbacks 8. Model evaluation 9. Projections of future climate change 10. Regional climate simulation - evaluation and projections 11. Changes in sea level 12. Detection of climate change and attribution of causes 13. Climate scenario development 14. Advancing our understanding Glossary Index Appendix.

Climate change 2001: the scientific basis

Drafting Authors: Neil Adger, Pramod Aggarwal, Shardul Agrawala, Joseph Alcamo, Abdelkader Allali, Oleg Anisimov, Nigel Arnell, Michel Boko, Osvaldo Canziani, Timothy Carter, Gino Casassa, Ulisses Confalonieri, Rex Victor Cruz, Edmundo de Alba Alcaraz, William Easterling, Christopher Field, Andreas Fischlin, Blair Fitzharris, Carlos Gay García, Clair Hanson, Hideo Harasawa, Kevin Hennessy, Saleemul Huq, Roger Jones, Lucka Kajfež Bogataj, David Karoly, Richard Klein, Zbigniew Kundzewicz, Murari Lal, Rodel Lasco, Geoff Love, Xianfu Lu, Graciela Magrín, Luis José Mata, Roger McLean, Bettina Menne, Guy Midgley, Nobuo Mimura, Monirul Qader Mirza, José Moreno, Linda Mortsch, Isabelle Niang-Diop, Robert Nicholls, Béla Nováky, Leonard Nurse, Anthony Nyong, Michael Oppenheimer, Jean Palutikof, Martin Parry, Anand Patwardhan, Patricia Romero Lankao, Cynthia Rosenzweig, Stephen Schneider, Serguei Semenov, Joel Smith, John Stone, Jean-Pascal van Ypersele, David Vaughan, Coleen Vogel, Thomas Wilbanks, Poh Poh Wong, Shaohong Wu, Gary Yohe

Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

This paper describes the contents of the 2016 edition of the HITRAN molecular spectroscopic compilation. The new edition replaces the previous HITRAN edition of 2012 and its updates during the intervening years. The HITRAN molecular absorption compilation is composed of five major components: the traditional line-by-line spectroscopic parameters required for high-resolution radiative-transfer codes, infrared absorption cross-sections for molecules not yet amenable to representation in a line-by-line form, collision-induced absorption data, aerosol indices of refraction, and general tables such as partition sums that apply globally to the data. The new HITRAN is greatly extended in terms of accuracy, spectral coverage, additional absorption phenomena, added line-shape formalisms, and validity. Moreover, molecules, isotopologues, and perturbing gases have been added that address the issues of atmospheres beyond the Earth. Of considerable note, experimental IR cross-sections for almost 300 additional molecules important in different areas of atmospheric science have been added to the database. The compilation can be accessed through www.hitran.org. Most of the HITRAN data have now been cast into an underlying relational database structure that offers many advantages over the long-standing sequential text-based structure. The new structure empowers the user in many ways. It enables the incorporation of an extended set of fundamental parameters per transition, sophisticated line-shape formalisms, easy user-defined output formats, and very convenient searching, filtering, and plotting of data. A powerful application programming interface making use of structured query language (SQL) features for higher-level applications of HITRAN is also provided.

/pdf/the-hitran-2008-molecular-spectroscopic-database-1ud8clpej3.pdf

The HITRAN 2008 molecular spectroscopic database

A rapid and accurate radiative transfer model (RRTM) for climate applications has been developed and the results extensively evaluated. The current version of RRTM calculates fluxes and cooling rates for the longwave spectral region (10–3000 cm−1) for an arbitrary clear atmosphere. The molecular species treated in the model are water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, and the common halocarbons. The radiative transfer in RRTM is performed using the correlated-k method: the k distributions are attained directly from the LBLRTM line-by-line model, which connects the absorption coefficients used by RRTM to high-resolution radiance validations done with observations. Refined methods have been developed for treating bands containing gases with overlapping absorption, for the determination of values of the Planck function appropriate for use in the correlated-k approach, and for the inclusion of minor absorbing species in a band. The flux and cooling rate results of RRTM are linked to measurement through the use of LBLRTM, which has been substantially validated with observations. Validations of RRTM using LBLRTM have been performed for the midlatitude summer, tropical, midlatitude winter, subarctic winter, and four atmospheres from the Spectral Radiance Experiment campaign. On the basis of these validations the longwave accuracy of RRTM for any atmosphere is as follows: 0.6 W m−2 (relative to LBLRTM) for net flux in each band at all altitudes, with a total (10–3000 cm−1) error of less than 1.0 W m−2 at any altitude; 0.07 K d−1 for total cooling rate error in the troposphere and lower stratosphere, and 0.75 K d−1 in the upper stratosphere and above. Other comparisons have been performed on RRTM using LBLRTM to gauge its sensitivity to changes in the abundance of specific species, including the halocarbons and carbon dioxide. The radiative forcing due to doubling the concentration of carbon dioxide is attained with an accuracy of 0.24 W m−2, an error of less than 5%. The speed of execution of RRTM compares favorably with that of other rapid radiation models, indicating that the model is suitable for use in general circulation models.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/97JD00237

Radiative transfer for inhomogeneous atmospheres: RRTM, a validated correlated-k model for the longwave

The potential effects on stratospheric aerosois of supersonic transport emissions of sulfur dioxide gas and submicron size soot granules are estimated. An interactive particle-gas model of the stratospheric aerosol is used to compute particle changes due to exhaust emissions, and an accurate radiation transport model is used to compute the attendant surface temperature changes. It is shown that a fleet of several hundred supersonic aircraft, operating daily at 20 km, could produce about a 20% increase in the concentration of large particles in the stratosphere. Aerosol increases of this magnitude would reduce the global surface temperature by less than 0.01 K.

/pdf/stratospheric-aerosol-modification-by-supersonic-transport-3yldls4gwl.pdf

Stratospheric Aerosol Modification by Supersonic Transport Operations With Climate Implications

Martian surface composition: comparison of remote spectral studies and in situ X-ray fluorescence analysis.

Radiative transfer calculations of the global energy balance were performed to estimate the change in mean surface temperature that results from the addition of volcanic aerosols to the stratosphere. Results of the calculations are consistent with stratospheric warming observed in the last few months following the eruption of Mt. Agung and the average surface temperature decrease found for the two year period following major volcanic explosions.

The effect of volcanic activity on climate

Is the faint young Sun paradox solved

Russell argues that a Titan-like view of the early Earth is inaccurate and that a CO2-dominated atmosphere is more likely. This view dominated thinking in the 1980s and 1990s, but has since been in decline. Geochemical arguments have been made supporting low CO2 abundances. Rosing et al. argue that

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/330/6005/754.2.full.pdf

Owen B. Toon

Papers

Stratospheric Aerosol Modification by Supersonic Transport Operations With Climate Implications

Martian surface composition: comparison of remote spectral studies and in situ X-ray fluorescence analysis.

The effect of volcanic activity on climate

Is the faint young Sun paradox solved

The Hazy Details of Early Earth's Atmosphere—Response