Prior to the twentieth century, theories of knowledge were inherently perceptual. Since then, developments in logic, statis- tics, and programming languages have inspired amodal theories that rest on principles fundamentally different from those underlying perception. In addition, perceptual approaches have become widely viewed as untenable because they are assumed to implement record- ing systems, not conceptual systems. A perceptual theory of knowledge is developed here in the context of current cognitive science and neuroscience. During perceptual experience, association areas in the brain capture bottom-up patterns of activation in sensory-motor areas. Later, in a top-down manner, association areas partially reactivate sensory-motor areas to implement perceptual symbols. The stor- age and reactivation of perceptual symbols operates at the level of perceptual components - not at the level of holistic perceptual expe- riences. Through the use of selective attention, schematic representations of perceptual components are extracted from experience and stored in memory (e.g., individual memories of green, purr, hot). As memories of the same component become organized around a com- mon frame, they implement a simulator that produces limitless simulations of the component (e.g., simulations of purr). Not only do such simulators develop for aspects of sensory experience, they also develop for aspects of proprioception (e.g., lift, run) and introspec- tion (e.g., compare, memory, happy, hungry). Once established, these simulators implement a basic conceptual system that represents types, supports categorization, and produces categorical inferences. These simulators further support productivity, propositions, and ab- stract concepts, thereby implementing a fully functional conceptual system. Productivity results from integrating simulators combinato- rially and recursively to produce complex simulations. Propositions result from binding simulators to perceived individuals to represent type-token relations. Abstract concepts are grounded in complex simulations of combined physical and introspective events. Thus, a per- ceptual theory of knowledge can implement a fully functional conceptual system while avoiding problems associated with amodal sym- bol systems. Implications for cognition, neuroscience, evolution, development, and artificial intelligence are explored.

/pdf/perceptual-symbol-systems-4spsk97r61.pdf

Perceptual symbol systems.

語用論(Pragmatics)を考える

Dual coding theory: Retrospect and current status.

SUMMARYACSM Position Stand on Exercise and Physical Activity for Older Adults. Med. Sci. Sports. Exerc., Vol. 30. No. 6, pp. 992-1008, 1998. By the year 2030, the number of individuals 65 yr and over will reach 70 million in the United States alone; persons 85 yr and older will be the fastest gr

ACSM Position Stand: Exercise and Physical Activity for Older Adults

Motivational Interviewing: Preparing People for Change

Client language from a motivational interview (MI) and drug use outcome were investigated. Interview videotapes of 84 drug abusers were coded for frequency and strength of utterances expressing commitment, desire, ability, need, readiness, and reasons to change or maintain their habit. Cluster analysis of proportion days abstinent (PDA) revealed 3 groups: high PDA at intake and follow-up (3, 6, 9, 12 months; maintainers); low intake PDA/high follow-up PDA (changers); and low intake PDA/low to moderate follow-up PDA (stragglers). Distinct group patterns emerged for commitment strength (CS) during MI. Clients dishonest in checklist self-report exhibited CS similar to stragglers. CS for client evaluation of a change plan predicted outcome PDA. CS was predicted by strength of desire, ability, need, and reasons, but more strongly predicted outcome PDA, suggesting CS is a pathway for their influence on behavior.

/pdf/client-commitment-language-during-motivational-interviewing-2cy2wto4bm.pdf

Client commitment language during motivational interviewing predicts drug use outcomes.

Background: Identifying in-session indicators of client outcomes is important in determining the mechanisms of psychotherapeutic treatments, including Motivational Interviewing (MI) The current studies sought to determine if clinician behavior influences client speech, and the extent to which client speech predicted treatment outcome in clients receiving treatment for substance abuse

Methods:  Study 1 examined 38 sessions from 5 sites in Project MATCH Sessions were coded using the Sequential Code for Process Exchanges (SCOPE) behavioral coding system Transition probabilities and inter-rater reliability were calculated Study 2 examined 45 sessions from the New Mexico site in Project MATCH Sessions were coded using the MISC 10 behavioral coding system Distal outcome measures were calculated for proportion of days abstinent (PDA) and drinks per drinking day (DDD) Hierarchical multiple regression and hierarchical logistic regression were used to characterize the relationship between client speech and outcome

Results:  In Study 1, inter-rater reliability estimates indicate that coders reliably distinguished between the categories within the SCOPE Behaviors consistent with MI (MICO) were significantly likely to be followed by client Change Talk (CT) and behaviors inconsistent with MI (MIIN) were significantly likely to be followed by Counterchange Talk (CCT) There was also a significant negative transition probability between MICO and CCT In Study 2, CT was found to account for significant portions of outcome variability beyond that attributable to baseline measures of problem severity

Conclusions:  Client speech during early therapy sessions appears to be a powerful predictor of substance abuse outcome The pattern of therapist behaviors and subsequent client language found in this data supports the intervention test in the causal chain we have described for motivational interviewing These studies provide preliminary support for a causal chain between therapist behaviors, subsequent client speech, and drinking outcomes within motivational interviewing sessions The results of both studies provide further support to the proposition that client speech impacts the likelihood of behavioral change, and that the occurrence of such speech is influenced by the therapist

Client language as a mediator of motivational interviewing efficacy: where is the evidence?

This article reviews the research literature on the differences between word reading and picture naming. A theory for the visual and cognitive processing of pictures and words is then introduced. The theory accounts for slower naming of pictures than reading of words. Reading aloud involves a fast, grapheme-to-phoneme transformation process, whereas picture naming involves two additional processes: (a) determining the meaning of the pictorial stimulus and (b) finding a name for the pictorial stimulus. We conducted a reading-naming experiment, and the time to achieve (a) and (b) was determined to be approximately 160 ms. On the basis of data from a second experiment, we demonstrated that there is no significant difference in time to visually compare two pictures or two words when size of the stimuli is equated. There is no difference in time to make the two types of cross-modality conceptual comparisons (picture first, then word, or word first, then picture). The symmetry of the visual and conceptual comparison results supports the hypothesis that the coding of the mind is neither intrinsically linguistic nor imagistic, but rather it is abstract. There is a potent stimulus size effect, equal for both pictorial and lexical stimuli. Small stimuli take longer to be visually processed than do larger stimuli. For optimal processing, stimuli should not only be equated for size, but should subtend a visual angle of at least 3 degrees. The article ends with the presentation of a mathematical theory that jointly accounts for the data from word-reading, picture-naming visual comparison, and conceptual-comparison experiments.

Theoretical analysis of the cognitive processing of lexical and pictorial stimuli: reading, naming, and visual and conceptual comparisons.

/pdf/manual-for-the-motivational-interviewing-skill-code-misc-3f67pxfsk4.pdf

Manual for the Motivational Interviewing Skill Code (MISC)

Patients' cognitive abilities and verbal expressions of commitment to behavioral change predict different aspects of substance abuse treatment outcome, but these 2 traits have never been examined conjointly. The authors therefore investigated patients' cognitive abilities and verbal expressions of commitment to behavioral change as predictors of retention and drug use outcomes in an outpatient cognitive behavioral treatment (CBT) of adult cocaine-dependent patients. A neuropsychological battery was administered at baseline. Two independent raters used recordings of CBT sessions to code commitment language strength across the temporal segments (e.g., beginning, middle, and end) of 1 session per patient. Better cognitive abilities predicted treatment retention (p < .01) but not drug use, whereas mean commitment strength across the session segments predicted reduced drug use (p = .01). Results indicate that although commitment to behavioral changes such as abstinence may occur independently of patients' cognitive abilities, engagement in the behavioral intervention process appears to depend on cognitive abilities. Future clinical studies should further investigate the relations between cognition and commitment to change and their differential contributions to treatment processes and outcome.

https://www.robertjmeyersphd.com/pdf/Cognition%20Commitment%20Language%20and%20Behavioral%20Change%20Among%20Cocaine%20Dependent%20Patients.pdf

Paul C. Amrhein

Papers

Client commitment language during motivational interviewing predicts drug use outcomes.

Client language as a mediator of motivational interviewing efficacy: where is the evidence?

Theoretical analysis of the cognitive processing of lexical and pictorial stimuli: reading, naming, and visual and conceptual comparisons.

Manual for the Motivational Interviewing Skill Code (MISC)

Cognition, commitment language, and behavioral change among cocaine-dependent patients