The remarkable Hubble Space Telescope?(HST) data sets from the CANDELS, HUDF09, HUDF12, ERS, and BoRG/HIPPIES programs have allowed us to map the evolution of the rest-frame UV luminosity function (LF) from to . We develop new color criteria that more optimally utilize the full wavelength coverage from the optical, near-IR, and mid-IR observations over our search fields, while simultaneously minimizing the incompleteness and eliminating redshift gaps. We have identified 5859, 3001, 857, 481, 217, and 6 galaxy candidates at , , , , , and , respectively, from the ?1000 arcmin2 area covered by these data sets. This sample of >10,000 galaxy candidates at is by far the largest assembled to date with HST. The selection of 4?8 candidates over the five CANDELS fields allows us to assess the cosmic variance; the largest variations are at . Our new LF determinations at and span a 6 mag baseline and reach to ?16 AB mag. These determinations agree well with previous estimates, but the larger samples and volumes probed here result in a more reliable sampling of galaxies and allow us to reassess the form of the UV LFs. Our new LF results strengthen our earlier findings to significance for a steeper faint-end slope of the UV LF at , with ? evolving from at to at (and at ), consistent with that expected from the evolution of the halo mass function. We find less evolution in the characteristic magnitude M* from to the observed evolution in the LF is now largely represented by changes in . No evidence for a non-Schechter-like form to the z ? 4?8 LFs is found. A simple conditional LF model based on halo growth and evolution in the M/L ratio of halos provides a good representation of the observed evolution.

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UV luminosity functions at redshifts z ∼ 4 to z ∼ 10: 10,000 galaxies from HST legacy fields

Young massive clusters are dense aggregates of young stars that form the fundamental building blocks of galaxies. Several examples exist in the Milky Way Galaxy and the Local Group, but they are particularly abundant in starburst and interacting galaxies. The few young massive clusters that are close enough to resolve are of prime interest for studying the stellar mass function and the ecological interplay between stellar evolution and stellar dynamics. The distant unresolved clusters may be effectively used to study the star-cluster mass function, and they provide excellent constraints on the formation mechanisms of young cluster populations. Young massive clusters are expected to be the nurseries for many unusual objects, including a wide range of exotic stars and binaries. So far only a few such objects have been found in young massive clusters, although their older cousins, the globular clusters, are unusually rich in stellar exotica. In this review we focus on star clusters younger than $\sim100$ Myr, more than a few current crossing times old, and more massive than $\sim10^4$ \Msun, irrespective of cluster size or environment. We describe the global properties of the currently known young massive star clusters in the Local Group and beyond, and discuss the state of the art in observations and dynamical modeling of these systems. In order to make this review readable by observers, theorists, and computational astrophysicists, we also review the cross-disciplinary terminology.

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Young Massive Star Clusters

The remarkable HST datasets from the CANDELS, HUDF09, HUDF12, ERS, and BoRG/HIPPIES programs have allowed us to map out the evolution of the UV LF from z~10 to z~4. We have identified 5859, 3001, 857, 481, 217, and 6 galaxy candidates at z~4, z~5, z~6, z~7, z~8, and z~10, respectively from the ~1000 arcmin**2 area probed. The selection of z~4-8 galaxies over the five CANDELS fields allows us to assess the cosmic variance; the largest variations are apparent at z>=7. Our new LF determinations at z~4 and z~5 span a 6-mag baseline (-22.5 to -16 AB mag). These determinations agree well with previous estimates, but the larger samples and volumes probed here result in a more reliable sampling of >L* galaxies and allow us to reassess the form of the UV LFs. Our new LF results strengthen our earlier findings to 3.4 sigma significance for a steeper faint-end slope to the UV LF at z>4, with alpha evolving from alpha=-1.64+/-0.04 at z~4 to alpha=-2.06+/-0.13 at z~7 (and alpha = -2.02+/-0.23 at z~8), consistent with that expected from the evolution of the halo mass function. With our improved constraints at the bright end, we find less evolution in the characteristic luminosity M* over the redshift range z~4 to z~7; the observed evolution in the LF is now largely represented by changes in phi*. No evidence for a non-Schechter-like form to the z~4-8 LFs is found. A simple conditional LF model based on halo growth and evolution in the M/L ratio of halos ((1+z)**-1.5) provides a good representation of the observed evolution.

UV Luminosity Functions at redshifts z~4 to z~10: 10000 Galaxies from HST Legacy Fields

Whether the stellar initial mass function (IMF) is universal or is instead sensitive to environmental conditions is of critical importance: The IMF influences most observable properties of stellar populations and thus galaxies, and detecting variations in the IMF could provide deep insights into the star formation process. This review critically examines reports of IMF variations, with a view toward whether other explanations are sufficient given the evidence. Studies of the field, young clusters and associations, and old globular clusters suggest that the vast majority were drawn from a universal system IMF: a power law of Salpeter index (Γ = 1.35) above a few solar masses, and a log normal or shallower power law (Γ ∼ 0–0.25) for lower mass stars. The shape and universality of the substellar IMF is still under investigation. Observations of resolved stellar populations and the integrated properties of most galaxies are also consistent with a universal IMF, suggesting no gross variations over much of cosm...

/pdf/a-universal-stellar-initial-mass-function-a-critical-look-at-dyi5eyxuh9.pdf

A Universal Stellar Initial Mass Function? A Critical Look at Variations

Stellar population synthesis (SPS) provides the link between the stellar and dust content of galaxies and their observed spectral energy distributions. In the present work, we perform a comprehensive calibration of our own flexible SPS (FSPS) model against a suite of data. These data include ultraviolet, optical, and near-IR photometry, surface brightness fluctuations, and integrated spectra of star clusters in the Magellanic Clouds (MCs), M87, M31, and the Milky Way (MW), and photometry and spectral indices of both quiescent and post-starburst galaxies at z {approx} 0. Several public SPS models are intercompared, including the models of Bruzual and Charlot (BC03), Maraston (M05), and FSPS. The relative strengths and weaknesses of these models are evaluated, with the following conclusions: (1) the FSPS and BC03 models compare favorably with MC data at all ages, whereas M05 colors are too red and the age dependence is incorrect; (2) all models yield similar optical and near-IR colors for old metal-poor systems, and yet they all provide poor fits to the integrated J - K and V - K colors of both MW and M31 star clusters; (3) FSPS is able to fit all of the ultraviolet data because both the post-asymptotic giant branch (post-AGB)more » and horizontal branch evolutionary phases are handled flexibly, while the BC03 and M05 models fail in the far-UV, and both far- and near-UV, respectively; (4) all models predict ugr colors too red, D{sub n}4000 strengths too strong, and Hdelta{sub A} strengths too weak compared to massive red sequence galaxies, under the assumption that such galaxies are composed solely of old metal-rich stars; and (5) FSPS and, to a lesser extent, BC03 can reproduce the optical and near-IR colors of post-starburst galaxies, while M05 cannot. Reasons for these discrepancies are explored. The failure at predicting the ugr colors, D{sub n}4000, and Hdelta{sub A} strengths can be explained by some combination of a minority population of metal-poor stars, young stars, blue straggler and/or blue horizontal branch (HB) stars, but not by appealing to inadequacies in either theoretical stellar atmospheres or canonical evolutionary phases (e.g., the main-sequence turnoff). The different model predictions in the near-IR for intermediate age systems are due to different treatments of the thermally pulsating asymptotic giant branch stellar evolutionary phase. We emphasize that due to a lack of calibrating star cluster data in regions of the metallicity-age plane relevant for galaxies, all of these models continue to suffer from serious uncertainties that are difficult to quantify.« less

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-637X/712/2/833/pdf

The propagation of uncertainties in stellar population synthesis modeling. iii. model calibration, comparison, and evaluation

We include gaseous continuum and line emission into our galev models for the spectral and photometric evolution of Simple Stellar Populations (SSPs) for various metallicities in the range 0:02 Z=Z 2:5. This allows to extend them to significantly younger ages than before. They now cover the age range from 4 Myr all through 14 Gyr. We point out the very important contributions of gaseous emission to broad band fluxes and their strong metallicity dependence during very early evolutionary stages of star clusters, galaxies or subgalactic fragments with vigorous ongoing star formation. Emission- line contributions are commonly seen in these actively star-forming regions. Models without gaseous emission cannot explain their observed colors at all, or lead to wrong age estimates. We use up-to-date Lyman continuum (=Lyc) emission rates and decided to use recent empirical determinations of emission line ratios relative to H for subsolar metallicities. We justify this approach for all situations where no or not enough spectral information is available to determine all the parameters required by photoionization models. The eects of gaseous line and continuum emission on broad band fluxes are shown for dierent metallicities and as a function of age. In addition to the many filter systems already included in our earlier models, we here also include the HST NICMOS and Advanced Camera for Surveys (=ACS) filter systems.

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Spectral and photometric evolution of young stellar populations: The impact of gaseous emission at various metallicities

We include gaseous continuum and line emission into our GALEV models for the spectral and photometric evolution of Simple Stellar Populations (SSPs) for various metallicities in the range 0.02 <= Z/Zsun <= 2.5. This allows to extend them to significantly younger ages than before. They now cover the age range from 4 Myr all through 14 Gyr. We point out the very important contributions of gaseous emission to broad band fluxes and their strong metallicity dependence during very early evolutionary stages of star clusters, galaxies or subgalactic fragments with vigorous ongoing star formation. Emission-line contributions are commonly seen in these actively star-forming regions. Models without gaseous emission cannot explain their observed colors at all, or lead to wrong age estimates. We use up-to-date Lyman continuum emission rates and decided to use recent empirical determinations of emission line ratios relative to Hbeta for subsolar metallicities. We justify this approach for all situations where no or not enough spectral information is available to determine all the parameters required by photoionization models. The effects of gaseous line and continuum emission on broad band fluxes are shown for different metallicities and as a function of age. In addition to the many filter systems already included in our earlier models, we here also include the HST NICMOS and Advanced Camera for Surveys (= ACS) filter systems.

/pdf/spectral-and-photometric-evolution-of-young-stellar-19z4wr44qr.pdf

Spectral and Photometric Evolution of Young Stellar Populations: the Impact of Gaseous Emission at Various Metallicities

GALEV (GALaxy EVolution) evolutionary synthesis models describe the evolution of stellar populations in general, of star clusters as well as of galaxies, both in terms of resolved stellar populations and of integrated light properties over cosmological time-scales of ≥13 Gyr from the onset of star formation shortly after the big bang until today. For galaxies, GALEV includes a simultaneous treatment of the chemical evolution of the gas and the spectral evolution of the stellar content, allowing for what we call a chemically consistent treatment: we use input physics (stellar evolutionary tracks, stellar yields and model atmospheres) for a large range of metallicities and consistently account for the increasing initial abundances of successive stellar generations. Here we present the latest version of the GALEV evolutionary synthesis models that are now interactively available at http://www.galev.org. We review the currently used input physics, and also give details on how this physics is implemented in practice. We explain how to use the interactive web interface to generate models for user-defined parameters and also give a range of applications that can be studied using GALEV, ranging from star clusters, undisturbed galaxies of various types E–Sd to starburst and dwarf galaxies, both in the local and the high-redshift Universe.

/pdf/galev-evolutionary-synthesis-models-i-code-input-physics-and-le6fmyxd5s.pdf

galev evolutionary synthesis models – I. Code, input physics and web interface

We use the ages, masses and metallicities of the rich young star cluster systems in the nearby starburst galaxies NGC 3310 and NGC 6745 to derive their cluster formation histories and subsequent evolution. We further expand our analysis of the systematic uncertainties involved in the use of broad-band observations to derive these parameters (Paper I) by examining the effects of a priori assumptions on the individual cluster metallicities. The age (and metallicity) distributions of both the clusters in the circumnuclear ring in NGC 3310 and of those outside the ring are statistically indistinguishable, but there is a clear and significant excess of higher-mass clusters in the ring compared to the non-ring cluster sample; it is likely that the physical conditions in the starburst ring may be conducive for the formation of higher-mass star clusters, on average, than in the relatively more quiescent environment of the main galactic disc. For the NGC 6745 cluster system we derive a median age of � 10 Myr. NGC 6745 contains a significant population of high-mass “super star clusters”, with masses in the range 6.5 . log(Mcl/M⊙) . 8.0. This detection supports the scenario that such objects form preferentially in the extreme environments of interacting galaxies. The age of the cluster populations in both NGC 3310 and NGC 6745 is significantly lower than their respective characteristic cluster disruption time-scales, respectively log(t dis /yr) = 8.05 and 7.75, for 10 4 M⊙ clusters. This allows us to obtain an independent estimate of the initial cluster mass function slope, � = 2.04(±0.23) +0.13 −0.43 for NGC 3310, and 1.96(±0.15) ± 0.19 for NGC 6745, respectively, for masses Mcl & 10 5 M⊙ and Mcl & 4 × 10 5 M⊙. These mass function slopes are consistent with those of other

/pdf/star-cluster-formation-and-evolution-in-nearby-starburst-p79yhl0jzq.pdf

Star cluster formation and evolution in nearby starburst galaxies – II. Initial conditions

We discuss the systematic uncertainties inherent to analyses of observed (broad-band) Spectral Energy Distributions (SEDs) of star clusters with evolutionary synthesis models. We investigate the effects caused by restricting oneself to a limited number of available passbands, choices of various passband combinations, finite observational errors, non-continuous model input parameter values, and restrictions in parameter space allowed during analysis. Starting from a complete set of UBVRIJH passbands (respectively their Hubble Space Telescope/WFPC2 equivalents) we investigate to which extent clusters with different combinations of age, metallicity, internal extinction and mass can or cannot be disentangled in the various evolutionary stages throughout their lifetimes and what are the most useful passbands required to resolve the ambiguities. We find the U and B bands to be of the highest significance, while the V band and near-infrared data provide additional constraints. A code is presented that makes use of luminosities of a star cluster system in all of the possibly available passbands, and tries to find ranges of allowed age-metallicity-extinction-mass combinations for individual members of star cluster systems. Numerous tests and examples are presented. We show the importance of good photometric accuracies and of determining the cluster parameters independently without any prior assumptions.

/pdf/analysing-observed-star-cluster-seds-with-evolutionary-3j41b9hqqt.pdf

Peter Anders

Papers

Spectral and photometric evolution of young stellar populations: The impact of gaseous emission at various metallicities

Spectral and Photometric Evolution of Young Stellar Populations: the Impact of Gaseous Emission at Various Metallicities

galev evolutionary synthesis models – I. Code, input physics and web interface

Star cluster formation and evolution in nearby starburst galaxies – II. Initial conditions

Analysing observed star cluster SEDs with evolutionary synthesis models: systematic uncertainties