Global environmental concerns and the escalating demand for energy, coupled with steady progress in renewable energy technologies, are opening up new opportunities for utilization of renewable energy resources. Solar energy is the most abundant, inexhaustible and clean of all the renewable energy resources till date. The power from sun intercepted by the earth is about 1.8 × 1011 MW, which is many times larger than the present rate of all the energy consumption. Photovoltaic technology is one of the finest ways to harness the solar power. This paper reviews the photovoltaic technology, its power generating capability, the different existing light absorbing materials used, its environmental aspect coupled with a variety of its applications. The different existing performance and reliability evaluation models, sizing and control, grid connection and distribution have also been discussed. © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

A review of solar photovoltaic technologies

Semiconductor nanowires (NWs) have been studied extensively for over two decades for their novel electronic, photonic, thermal, electrochemical and mechanical properties. This comprehensive review article summarizes major advances in the synthesis, characterization, and application of these materials in the past decade. Developments in the understanding of the fundamental principles of "bottom-up" growth mechanisms are presented, with an emphasis on rational control of the morphology, stoichiometry, and crystal structure of the materials. This is followed by a discussion of the application of nanowires in i) electronic, ii) sensor, iii) photonic, iv) thermoelectric, v) photovoltaic, vi) photoelectrochemical, vii) battery, viii) mechanical, and ix) biological applications. Throughout the discussion, a detailed explanation of the unique properties associated with the one-dimensional nanowire geometry will be presented, and the benefits of these properties for the various applications will be highlighted. The review concludes with a brief perspective on future research directions, and remaining barriers which must be overcome for the successful commercial application of these technologies.

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25th Anniversary Article: Semiconductor Nanowires – Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications

With a global market share of about 90%, crystalline silicon is by far the most important photovoltaic technology today. This article reviews the dynamic field of crystalline silicon photovoltaics from a device-engineering perspective. First, it discusses key factors responsible for the success of the classic dopant-diffused silicon homojunction solar cell. Next it analyzes two archetypal high-efficiency device architectures – the interdigitated back-contact silicon cell and the silicon heterojunction cell – both of which have demonstrated power conversion efficiencies greater than 25%. Last, it gives an up-to-date summary of promising recent pathways for further efficiency improvements and cost reduction employing novel carrier-selective passivating contact schemes, as well as tandem multi-junction architectures, in particular those that combine silicon absorbers with organic–inorganic perovskite materials.

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High-efficiency crystalline silicon solar cells: status and perspectives

The reduction in electronic recombination losses by the passivation of silicon surfaces is a critical enabler for high-efficiency solar cells. In 2006, aluminum oxide (Al2O3) nanolayers synthesized by atomic layer deposition (ALD) emerged as a novel solution for the passivation of p- and n-type crystalline Si (c-Si) surfaces. Today, high efficiencies have been realized by the implementation of ultrathin Al2O3 films in laboratory-type and industrial solar cells. This article reviews and summarizes recent work concerning Al2O3 thin films in the context of Si photovoltaics. Topics range from fundamental aspects related to material, interface, and passivation properties to synthesis methods and the implementation of the films in solar cells. Al2O3 uniquely features a combination of field-effect passivation by negative fixed charges, a low interface defect density, an adequate stability during processing, and the ability to use ultrathin films down to a few nanometers in thickness. Although various methods can be used to synthesize Al2O3, this review focuses on ALD—a new technology in the field of c-Si photovoltaics. The authors discuss how the unique features of ALD can be exploited for interface engineering and tailoring the properties of nanolayer surface passivation schemes while also addressing its compatibility with high-throughput manufacturing. The recent progress achieved in the field of surface passivation allows for higher efficiencies of industrial solar cells, which is critical for realizing lower-cost solar electricity in the near future.

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Status and prospects of Al2O3-based surface passivation schemes for silicon solar cells

Al2O3 is a versatile high-κ dielectric that has excellent surface passivation properties on crystalline Si (c-Si), which are of vital importance for devices such as light emitting diodes and high-efficiency solar cells. We demonstrate both experimentally and by simulations that the surface passivation can be related to a satisfactory low interface defect density in combination with a strong field-effect passivation induced by a negative fixed charge density Qf of up to 1013 cm−2 present in the Al2O3 film at the interface with the underlying Si substrate. The negative polarity of Qf in Al2O3 is especially beneficial for the passivation of p-type c-Si as the bulk minority carriers are shielded from the c-Si surface. As the level of field-effect passivation is shown to scale with Qf2, the high Qf in Al2O3 tolerates a higher interface defect density on c-Si compared to alternative surface passivation schemes.

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On the c-Si surface passivation mechanism by the negative-charge-dielectric Al2O3

Investigation of thin film of metal oxides on silicon with impedance spectroscopy

This paper presents the comparison of nitrogen incorporation in GaAsN and InGaAsN layers grown on GaAs substrate from Ga- and In-rich solution, respectively, by liquid-phase epitaxy. Polycrystalline GaN has been used as a source of nitrogen in two cases. The initial epitaxy temperature has been varied in the temperature range 600-550 °C. Nitrogen content in Ga1-xAsNx grown layers has been determined to be in the range 0.1-0.5%. Higher nitrogen incorporation efficiency has been found for quaternary InGaAsN layers grown under carefully chosen lattice matched conditions. The incorporation of nitrogen into GaAsN and InGaAsN layers has been study by vibrational mode absorption spectroscopy. Nitrogen-induced vibration mode near 472 cm-1 has been registered in GaAsN samples. Preferential In-N bonds and the formation of N-centred In3Ga1 clusters have been identified for lattice matched to GaAs epitaxial InGaAsN layers. Electrical properties of the samples have been characterized by temperature-dependent Hall effect measurements. Nominally undoped GaAsN and InGaAsN grown layers are n-type with Hall concentration about one order of magnitude higher in comparison to layers not containing nitrogen. Thermally activated increase in the free carrier concentration at temperatures higher than 150 K is observed which indicates the presence of N-related deep donor levels below dilute nitride conduction band edge. (© 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Nitrogen incorporation into GaAsN and InGaAsN layers grown by liquid-phase epitaxy

Influence of interface states on the write characteristics of MNOS memory structures

Direct current conductance in Al/(Al2O3)X(TiO2)1-X/silicon structure was studied, the dielectric layers being deposited by the chemical solution deposition method. The measurements were carried out at room temperature and 320, 340 and 360 K. The results correspond to bulk-limited conduction of the Poole-Frenkel type. High voltages and temperature lead to an additional current rise, explained by thermal excitation and tunneling of electrons through the lowered Poole-Frenkel barrier.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/113/1/012037/pdf

Electrical properties of (Al2O3)x(TiO2)1-x films deposited on a silicon substrate

In this paper, we present the preparation of multilayer AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructures for photovoltaic application. The structures developed consist of several layers grown on a highly conducting GaAs substrate: n-GaAs base, p-GaAs emitter embedded between two AlGaAs layers, and heavily doped p+GaAs capping contact layer. The second 0.03 μm thick 'window' AlGaAs layer has band gap energy of 2.1 eV and ensures penetration of the higher-energy photons in the active region of the p-n junction. The electrical and optical parameters of the multilayer heterostructure as well as the layers thickness are designed by numerical simulation using computer modeling. The optimized heterostructure has a back-surface-field AlGaAs layer of several microns and an ultra thin (20-40 nm) window layer providing the best conversion efficiency and a maximum spectral response in the range 300-900 nm.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/113/1/012031/pdf

Petko Vitanov

Papers

Investigation of thin film of metal oxides on silicon with impedance spectroscopy

Nitrogen incorporation into GaAsN and InGaAsN layers grown by liquid-phase epitaxy

Influence of interface states on the write characteristics of MNOS memory structures

Electrical properties of (Al2O3)x(TiO2)1-x films deposited on a silicon substrate

Preparation and characterization of multilayer AlGaAs/GaAs structures for photovoltaic application